by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh*
Created: 30 April 2026
Updated: 10 July, 2026
Posted and expanded from:
Khalifa-zadeh M., "Zoroastrianism and its Prophet Zoroaster: Where Zoroaster Communed with God?", International Journal of Innovative Studies in Humanities and Social Studies, USA, 2026, Vol 2, Issue 3, 1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71123/3067-7319.020301
PDF available at: https://www.academia.edu/166182476/Zoroastrianism_and_its_Prophet_Zoroaster_Where_Zoroaster_Communed_with_God
 |
Fig 1. Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Parthian city of Dura Europos, Syria (300 BC) |
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's
oldest religions. Zoroastrianism left a footprint in Iran many centuries before
the arrival of Christianity (later established as the Church of the East/
Church of Persia) and Islam in this country. The Great Achaemenid Kings
(550–330 BC), highly likely, were followers of Zoroastrianism (now commonly termed as "Mazdaism" for the Achaemenid period) and supported its strengthening
in their Empire.
However, only in the Sasanian period
did Zoroastrianism become the official religion in Iran (Ērānšahr, at the
time). The Sasanian King Shāpūr I (r. 239-270 CE), son of the Sasanian Empire
founder Ardaxšīr I Babakan (r. 180–242 CE), proclaimed Zoroastrianism as the official religion of the empire.
The essence of Zoroastrianism is
that human beings must be on the truth (Avestan: Aṣ̌a) side, helping to
support order, peace, righteousness and justice that the principal God Ahura Mazdā
(Avestan: Ahuramazda, Pahlavi: Hormizd) tries to maintain, while
battling with the destructive spirit or evil Angra Manyu (Avestan: Aŋra Mainiiu,
Pahlavi: Ahreman). Zoroastrianism teaches that
There is a popular misinterpretation that Zoroastrians worshiped fire. However, the fire (Avestan: Ātaš) was a “tool” or “messenger” for communicating with Ahura Mazdā, the creator and guardian of justice and a friend of the just man. Zoroastrian Magi (Avestan: Maga, Median/Old Persian: Magu, Middle Persian/ Pahlavi: maguš), or priests [4], as Igor Diakonoff believed, were a specially trained tribe or caste of the Medes (Pahlavi: Mād/a, Greek: Medians) who played a critical role in Zoroastrian society. The Magi/ Magus [5] acted as a Mediator between the worshiper and the divinity. The Magian Church held significant power and influence that the Shah could not ignore.
Interestingly, Diakonoff argued that the Medes, as an Aryan tribe, were the first to adopt Zoroastrianism, and that the first Achaemenids were the next. George Rawlinson believed that it was in Media that the Magies were first found acting in the capacity of Aryan priests, thrusting into the background the old Aryan belief. The Medes never apostatized from the worship to Ahura Mazdā or surrendered their Dualistic belief.
Next, the origin and development of Zoroastrianism are associated with a prophet (Avestan: paygambar) Zoroaster (Avestan: Zaraθuštra, Greek, Ζωροάστρης/ Zōroastrēs, Pahlavi: zltw(h)št Zar(a)du(x)št). His name in Avestan (language of Zoroastrians' sacred book “Avesta”) means the owner of yellow or golden (zarat) camels (uštra). Zoroaster, as Philippe Kreyenbroek believes, authored the Gāthās (Hymns) and rejected the cult of the old Aryan group of gods known as daevas (Avestan: daēuua) in favor to one god - Ahura Mazdā.
There is a diversity of opinion with reference to Zoroaster's time. The classical tradition, based on Aristotle (350 BC), Eudoxus of Cnidus (368 BC), and Plutarch (50-120 CE) statements, places Zoroaster 5000 years before the Trojan war, or 6000 years before Xerxes (r. 518-465 BC).
Indeed, it is of great interest for scholars to identify when and where Zoroaster was born and where he came to preach. His name origin, life, and preaching continue to be a subject of intensive debates among the historians.
Truly, there are wide discussions among modern historians about Zoroaster's date, fueling by the existing discrepancy in the classical statements. Thus, some scholars, such as Oktor Skjaervo, believe that Zoroaster lived 1700-1200 years before Christ. However, others, like Gherardo Gnoli, referring to Greek sources, argue that he flourished around 300-500 years before Alexander of Macedon. Williams Jackson assigned Zoroaster's birth about 300 years before 330 BC, the date of the fall of the Achaemenid empire through Alexander's conquest or around 630 BC.
Interestingly, the Zoroastrian text of Ardā-i Wīrāz nāmag (Book of the Righteous Wīrāz) [3], written in Middle Persian/ Pahlavi, mentions that at the end of 300 years of righteous Zaratosht's religion the "foul Evil Spirit tries to make men doubtful in regard to this religion, instigated the accursed Alexander... so that he came to the country of Iran with severe cruelty and devastation, he also slew the ruler of Iran, and destroyed the metropolis and empire and made them desolate". Thus, the Magians count around 300 years (more exactly 258 years) between their prophet Zoroaster and Alexander. They also state that Zoroaster taught 35 years and died at the age of seventy seven.
Next, regarding Zoroaster’s birthplace, some scholars, citing classical Greek sources, identify him as a Bactrian, mentioning him as Zoroaster the Magian, king of Bactria. However, others argue that he was from Balkh, which is now in Afghanistan.
In the meantime, historians suppose that Prophet Zoroaster was native of Azerbaijan and first appeared in western Iran, either in Atropatene (Greek: Ἀτροπατηνή, Old Persian: Ātūr-pātakān, Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) or in Media (Assyrian: Mādāya, Old Persian: Māda'a).
Indeed, several classical sources name Zoroaster as a Mede (Median), placing him in Ādarbījān or Media-Atropatene. They point out Urmiah as Zoroaster's native place. Moses of Chorene (431 CE) mentions Zoroaster as “a Magian, the sovereign of the Medes”, who sized Nineveh placing him as a contemporary of Semiramis, queen-regent of the Assyrian empire (r. 811-806 BC).
The Arabic Chronicon of Bar Ebhraya (also known as Tārīkh Mukhtaṣar al-Duwal or "History of the Dynasties") mentions the following: "In those days (of Cambyses) came Zaradosht chief of the Magian sect, by birth of Ādarbījān...". [Here, Cambyses is likely the son of Cyrus the Great, rather than his father].
The Bundahish (Middle Persian/ Pahlavi: Bun-dahišn(īh), "Primal Creation", a Pahlavi compilation based on Zoroastrian scriptures) mentions that Zoroaster's father house stood near the river Darja/Darej (Pahlavi: Dāraja) that flows from Mount Sabalan/ Savalan in Ādarbījān (Atropatene) into the Aras (Araxes) river (present-day Azerbaijan).
The other Arabic writer Kazwini directly associates Zoroaster with the ancient city of Shīz or Ganzaka (Greek: Γάζακα), capital of Atropatene. Rawlinson and Minorsky identify Shīz with modern Takht-e Soleiman in Azerbaijan (Iran), where are the ruins of Ādur Gušnasp fire (now Azargoshnasp), one of the three Great Fires of ancient Iran.
The Sasanians granted the rank of “cathedral” to the Ādur Gušnasp fire. Sasanian King Šāpūr I's supreme Magi Kardīr (mobedān mobed, priest of priests) was affiliated with the fire-temple of Ādur Gušnasp. Later, during the reign of King Šāpūr II, the powerful mobedān mobed Ādurbād-ī Mahrspandān (“Ādurbād, son of Mahraspand”) was also affiliated with Ādur Gušnasp fire.
 |
| Fig 2. Mt Savalan/ Sebīlān, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran |
Next,
the passage from Kazwini (quoted from Rawlinson) reads: "In Shiz is the
fire- temple of Azerekhsh [Pahlavi: Ādur Gušnasp/ Ādhar Gušnasp], the
most celebrated of the Pyraea of the Magi; in the days of the fire-worship, the
kings always came on foot, upon pilgrimage. The temple of Azerekhsh is ascribed
to Zeratusht, the founder of the Magian religion, who went, it is said, from
Shiz to the mountain of Sebīlān and, after remaining there some time in
retirement, returned with the Zend-Avesta, which, although written in the old
Persian language, could not be understood without a commentary. After this, he
declared himself to be a prophet."
According to Williams Jackson,
speaking on Shīz in Ādarbaijān, Kazwini continued: "Zarādusht, the prophet
of the Magians, takes his origin from here (i.e., Ādarbaijān). It is said that
he came from Shīz. He went to the mountain Sabalān, separated from men."
Indeed, there is some evidence
indicating that Zoroaster began to preach on the Mt. Sabalan/ Savalan (Pahlavi:
Sebīlān, 4811 m). The mount is in the modern Ardabil county of
Azerbaijan in Iran. The people of Azerbaijan also call Mt. Soltan Savalan,
describing it as a holy mountain.
Remarkably,
Jackson indicates that the Avesta mentions a hill by the river Darja where
Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazdā. He argues that the hill (zbarah) or
mountain (gairi) is Mount Sebīlān. According to him, the Avesta's Darja
River is possibly the modern Darya (?), which flows from Mt. Sebīlān into the
Aras river (Araxes).
Interestingly, the Avesta mentions 16 perfect lands (asah) and countries (šōiθra), which Ahura Mazdā created for His people. Avestan Geography identifies Avesta's Iran Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah, Pahlavi: Ērān-wēz, “the area of the Aryans”) with Atropatene [Azerbaijan].
 |
| Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as it described in Vendidāt (Fargard 1) |
Indeed, Williams Jackson writes that the Bundahish directly connects Iran Vej (the holy land of Zoroastrianism where Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was born and founded his religion there) with Atropatene [1]: "Aīrān Vej pavan kōst-ī Ātūr-pātakān" [Azerbaijan].
However, James Darmesteter (first translator of the Zend-Avesta [2]) identifies the province Airyanem Vaeja (Iran Vej), or Eranwej, with Arran (nowadays known as Karabagh, present-day Azerbaijan).
Darmesteter translates the passage from Avesta Vendidāt/Vidēvdād (Fargard 1) as follows: “Ahura Mazda spake Zarathushtra, saying: The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyana Vaeja, by the Vanguhi Daitya.” He comments that the river Vanguhi Daitya (Avestan: Vaŋuhī Dāityā “the good Dāityā”) belongs to Arran, and it should be the Aras (Araxes) river.
 |
| Fig 4. Zoroastrians (local and Iranian) pray in Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
 |
| Fig 5. Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
Truly, the region of Arran (Pahlavi: Ārān), also known as Caucasian Albania, is the present-day Azerbaijan. The Pahlavi and Sasanian books introduced Airyanem Vaeja around Azerbaijan. Historians like James Darmesteter and Ernst Herzfeld believed that Airyanem Vaeja's location is Azerbaijan and around the Caucasus.
In
the meantime, the Bundahish indicates that the river Darja/ Darej, near which
stood the house of Zoroaster's father, had been in Iran Vej. In this regard,
Jackson notes that the Bundahish likewise alludes to Zoroaster's first offering
worship in Iran Vej. He provides Darmesteter's translation of the passage from
the Avesta: "Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazda on the high bank of the
Darej, sitting (?) before the good Ahura Mazda... ". The Bundahish accounts that Zoroaster's age was 30 when he beheld the first vision of Ormazd (Ahura Mazda).
Next,
Jackson states that "With regard to localizations, there is good ground
for believing that Airan Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah) is to be
identified in part at least with Ādarbaijān, and that the ancient river Darej
of the Avesta is identical with the modern Daryai. The Daryai Rūd (river) flows
from Mt. Savalān (Sebīlān), in Ādarbaijān, northward into the Aras River
(Araxes)."
Intriguingly,
Jackson provides importantly interesting details on Zoroaster's native place
and his parents: "Oriental tradition seems to be fairly correct in
assigning, as his native land, the district of Atropatene or Ādarbaijān, to the
west of Media, or even more precisely the neighborhood about Lake Urumiah.
There is ground, furthermore, for believing in the tradition which says that
his father was a native of Ādarbaijān, - a region of naphtha wells and oil
fountains, - and that Zoroaster's mother was from the Median city of Ragha
(Rai)."
He
continues: "In the latter region probably Zoroaster was born and seems to
have spent there the first part of his life, probably by the river Darja. It
was there his religious meditations began. That account for his name being
associated with all this territory Urmiah, Shīz, Mount Sebīlān."
Finally,
Jackson concludes: "There is a great reason to believe that if, as seems
most likely, Zoroaster was born in Atropatene, he was drawn toward the
important city of Ragha, somewhat perhaps as Christ went to Jerusalem."
In summing up, Azerbaijan's Mount Savalan is one of the sacred places in Zoroastrianism where, according to some significant sources, Prophet Zoroaster received a divine revelation. The mount may be the Avestan "Mount of the Holy Communicants." Nietzsche mentions that Prophet Zoroaster ascended Mount Savalan.
Later, in the Sasanian period, Ādurbādagān [Azerbaijan] became a center of Zoroastrian propaganda and religious "core" of the empire, projecting its influence, name and military functions on Arran (Caucasian Albania, present-day Azerbaijan) up to the Darband fortress on the Caspian shores.
* Khalifa-zadeh M., Research
Professor, Ph.D, Canadian Historical Association, Ottawa, Canada
Notices
[1] Atropatene perhaps was a place were legendary hero Feridun (Avestan: Θraētaona, Pahlavi: Frēdōn) was born and ruled up to 500 years.
[2] The oldest part of Avesta (Gathas or "Songs") roots deep to the time of Medes (Medians) and reflects the form of the Median religion.
[3] The book probably was written in 3rd century, during the time of the first Sasanian king Ardaxšīr I Babakan.
[4] There was another class of fire priest or title of Magi/ Magus (Parthian: āturšpat, fire - ātur, "fire master").
[5] The Magi had a special sect called "Fire Kindlers" (Pyraithoi/ "fire igniters").
References:
A.V.Williams Jackson, "Where Was Zoroaster's Native Place?", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol 15, 1893, pp. 221-232, https://doi.org/10.2307/592356
A.V. Williams Jackson, "On the Date of Zoroaster", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol 17, 1896, pp. 1-22, https://doi.org/10.2307/592499
A.V. Williams Jackson, "Zoroaster the Prophet of Ancient Iran", London 1899, 352, available at: https://archive.org/details/cu31924022982502/page/n5/mode/2up
Friedrich Nietzsche, "Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One", Penguin Classics, 1961, 352.
"The Book of Arda Viraf", Trans: Martin Haug, University of Munich, 1917, 315, Avesta.org publishing, available at: https://www.avesta.org/mp/viraf.html
Gignoux Philippe, Ardā-i Wīrāz nāmag, Encyclopedia Iranica, 1986, Vol II Fasc. 4, 356-357, https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_5631
“Vendidad (Vidēvdād) or Laws against the Demons, Avesta - The Sacred Books of Zoroastrianism", Book 3, Trans: James Darmesteter (From Sacred Books of the East), Ed: Joseph H. Peterson, American Edition, 1898, 192, Avesta.org publishing, 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd_eng.pdf
“AVESTA: VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 1”, digital edition, prepared by Joseph H. Peterson, 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd1sbe.htm
Roots Hount, "Avestan Geography", available at: https://rootshunt.com/angirasgautam/sumeriancivilizationinfulenceonhinduism/assyria/whowereasurs/avestangeography/avestangeography.htm
Gherardo Gnoli G., "Avestan Geography", Encyclopedia Iranica, 2011, Vol. III, Fasc. 1, pp. 44-47, available at: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avestan-geography
Philippe Kroyenbriek, "The Developing Zoroastrian World and Orality", In: The Zoroastrian World, Ed: Jenny Rose, Albert de Jong, Sarah Steward, Routledge, 2026, 614.
Mary Boyce, "Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices", Routledge, 1979, 252.
Oktor Skjaervø, "The Avesta as source for the early history of the Iranians", In: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, Ed: George Erdosy, Gruyter, 1995, 155-176, available at: https://www.academia.edu/28622991/_The_Avesta_as_Source_for_the_Early_History_of_the_Iranians_pdf
Mattew P. Canepa, "Zoroastrianism in Anatolia and the Caucasus", In: Zoroastrian Worlds, Ed: Jenney Rose, Albert de Jong, Sara Steward, Routledge, 2026, 293- 308. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003168904
Lucinda Dirven, "Zoroastrianism in the Religious Context of the Arsacid Empire", In: Zoroastrian Worlds, Ed: Jenney Rose, Albert de Jong, Sara Steward, Routledge, 2026, 167-177. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003168904
Muhammad Dandamayev, "MAGI", Encyclopedia Iranica, 2000, https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_11099
Vladimir Minorsky, "Caucasica IV", 1953. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1953;15 (3): 504-529.
and Sarah StewartFigures:
Fig1. 3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster#/media/File:CIMRM_44-Mithraic_pater_(Dura_Europos)_B.jpg
Fig 2., Mt Sabalan, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran, available at: https://www.irantourtravel.com/2017/12/the-dove-white-sabalan-mountain-soared.html
Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as described in Vendidat (Fargard 1), available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus
Fig 4. Zoroastrians pray in Ateshgah, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Azerbaijan
Fig 5. “ATESHGAH TEMPLE” STATE HISTORICAL-ARCHITECTURAL RESERVE", Surakhani, Baku, Azerbaijan available at: https://ateshgahtemple.az/en/
_B.jpg){kind=link}