Zoroastrianism and its Prophet: Is Azerbaijan Where Zoroaster Communed with God?

 by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh*

Created: 30 April 2026

Updated: 14 May, 2026

Posted from:

Khalifa-zadeh M., "Zoroastrianism and its Prophet Zoroaster: Where Zoroaster Communed with God?", International Journal of Innovative Studies in Humanities and Social Studies, USA, 2026, Vol 2, Issue 3, 1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71123/3067-7319.020301 

available at: https://aytinpublications.com/International-Journal-of-Innovative-Studies-in-Humanities-and-Social-Studies/about.php

PDF: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/404381071_Zoroastrianism_and_its_Prophet_Zoroaster_Where_Zoroaster_Communed_with_God

Fig 1. 3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria

Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest religions. Zoroastrianism left a footprint in Iran many centuries before the arrival of Christianity (later established as the Church of the East/ Church of Persia) and Islam in this country. The Great Achaemenid Kings (550–330 BC) were followers of Zoroastrianism and supported its strengthening in their Empire.

However, only at the Sasanian period did Zoroastrianism become the official religion in Iran (Ērānšahr, at the time). The Sasanian King Shāpūr I (r. 239-270 CE), son of the Sasanian Empire founder Ardaxšīr I (r. 180–242 CE), proclaimed Zoroastrianism as the only official religion of the empire.

The essence of Zoroastrianism is that human beings must be on the truth (Avestan: aṣ̌a) side, helping to support order, peace, righteousness and justice that principal God Ahura Mazdā (Avestan: Ahuramazda, Pahlavi: Hormizd) tries to maintain, while battling with the destructive spirit or evil Angra Manyu (Avestan: Aŋra Maⁱniiu, Pahlavi: Ahreman). Zoroastrianism teaches that Ahura Mazdā is a highest object of adoration, the true Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the universe. From him all good comes to man.

There is a popular misinterpretation that Zoroastrians worshiped fire. However, the fire was a “tool” or “messenger” to communicate with Ahura Mazdā, creator and guardian of justice, and a friend of the just man. Zoroastrian magies (Pahlavi: maguš) or priests, as Igor Diyakonoff believed, were a specially trained tribe or caste of the Medes, who played a significant role in the Zoroastrian society, holding a significant power that the Shah could not ignore. Diyakonoff argued that the Medes (Medians) were the first to adopt Zoroastrianism, and then by the first Achaemenids.

The origin and development of Zoroastrianism are associated with a prophet (Avestan: paygambar) Zoroaster (Avestan: Zaraθuštra, Greek, Ζωροάστρης/ Zōroastrēs, Pahlavi: zltw(h)št Zar(a)du(x)št).  His name in Avestan (language of the sacred book “Avesta”) means the owner of yellow or golden (zarat) camels (uštra). His life and religious activity continue to be in the focus of historians. 

Indeed, it is of great interest for scholars to identify when and where Zoroaster was born and where he came to preach. Truly, there are wide discussions among historians about when Zoroaster lived. Some scholars, such as Oktor Skjaervo, believe that Zoroaster lived 1700-1200 years before Christ. However, others, like Gherardo Gnoli, referring to Greek sources, argue that he lived around 300-500 years before the military expedition of Alexander of Macedon against the Achaemenid Empire.

Regarding Zoroaster’s birthplace, some scholars, citing classical Greek sources, identify him as a Bactrian, mentioning him as Zoroaster the Magian, king of the Bactrians. However, others argue that he was from Balkh, which is now in Afghanistan. In the meantime, historians do not exclude that Prophet Zoroaster first appeared in western Iran, either in Atropatene (Greek: Ἀτροπατηνή, Old Persian: Ātūrpātakān, Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) or in Media (Pahlavi: Mada’a).

Indeed, several classical sources name Zoroaster as a Mede (Median), placing him in Adarbījān or Media-Atropatene. They point out Urmia as Zoroaster's native place. Moses of Chorene (431 CE) mentions Zoroaster as “a Magian, the sovereign of the Medes.”

The Bundahish (Middle Persian: Bun-dahišn(īh), "Primal Creation", a Pahlavi compilation based on Zoroastrian scriptures) mentions that his father's house stood near the river Darja/Darej (Pahlavi: Dāraja) that flows from Mount Sabalan/ Savalan in Ādarbījān (Atropatene) into the Aras (Araxes) river (present-day Azerbaijan).

However, the Arabic writer Kazwini associates Zoroaster with the ancient city of Shīz or Ganzaka (Greek: Γάζακα), capital of Atropatene. Rawlinson and Minorsky identify Shīz with modern Takht-e Soleiman in Azerbaijan (Iran), where are the ruins of Ādur Gušnasp fire (now Azargoshnasp), one of the three Great Fires of ancient Iran. 

Thus, the Sasanians granted the rank of “cathedral” to the Ādur Gušnasp fire.  Sasanian King Šāpūr I's supreme Magi Kardīr (mobedān mobed, priest of priests) was affiliated with the fire-temple of Ādur Gušnasp. Later, during the rein of King Šāpūr II, the powerful mobedān mobed Ādurbād-ī Mahrspandān (“Ādurbād, son of Mahraspand”) was also affiliated with Ādur Gušnasp fire.

Fig 2. Mt Savalan/ Sebīlān, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran

Next, the passage from Kazwini (quoted from Rawlinson) reads: "In Shiz is the fire- temple of Azerekhsh [Pahlavi: Ādur Gušnasp/ Ādhar Gušnasp], the most celebrated of the Pyraea of the Magi; in the days of the fire-worship, the kings always came on foot, upon pilgrimage. The temple of Azerekhsh is ascribed to Zeratusht, the founder of the Magian religion, who went, it is said, from Shiz to the mountain of Sebīlān and, after remaining there some time in retirement, returned with the Zend-Avesta, which, although written in the old Persian language, could not be understood without a commentary. After this, he declared himself to be a prophet."

According to Williams Jackson, speaking on Shīz in Ādarbaijān, Kazwini continued: "Zarādusht, the prophet of the Magians, takes his origin from here (i.e., Ādarbaijān). It is said that he came from Shīz. He went to the mountain Sabalān, separated from men."

Indeed, there is some evidence indicating that Zoroaster began to preach on the Mt. Sabalan/ Savalan (Pahlavi: Sebīlān, 4811 m). The mount is in the modern Ardabil county of Azerbaijan in Iran. The people of Azerbaijan also call Mt. Soltan Savalan, describing it as a holy mountain.

Remarkably, Jackson indicates that the Avesta mentions a hill by the river Darja where Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazdā. He argues that the hill (zbarah) or mountain (gairi) is Mount Sebīlān. According to him, the Avesta's Darja River is possibly the modern Darya (?), which flows from Mt. Sebīlān into the Aras river (Araxes).

Interestingly, the Avesta mentions 16 perfect lands (asah) and countries (šōiθra), which Ahura Mazdā created for His people. Avestan Geography identifies Avesta's Iran Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah, Pahlavi: Ērān-wēz, “the area of the Aryans”) with Atropatene [Azerbaijan].

Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as described in Vendidat (Fargard 1)

Indeed, Jackson writes that the Bundahish directly connects Iran Vej (the holy land of Zoroastrianism where Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was born and founded his religion there) with Atropatene [1]: "Aīrān Vej pavan kōst-ī Ātūr-pātakān" [Azerbaijan].

However, James Darmesteter (a first translator of the Zend-Avesta [2]) identifies the province Airyanem Vaeja (Iran Vej), or Eranwej, with Arran (nowadays known as Karabagh, present-day Azerbaijan).

Darmesteter translates the passage from Avesta Vendidat/Vidēvdād (Fargard 1) as follows: “Ahura Mazda spake Zarathushtra, saying: The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyana Vaeja, by the Vanguhi Daitya.” He comments that the river Vanguhi Daitya (Avestan: Vaŋuhī Dāityā “the good Dāityā”) belongs to Arran, and it should be the Aras (Araxes) river.

Fig 4. Zoroastrians (local and Iranian) pray in Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan

Fig 5. Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan

Truly, the region of Arran (Pahlavi: Ārān), also known as Caucasian Albania, is the present-day Azerbaijan. The Pahlavi and Sasanian books introduced Airyanem Vaeja around Azerbaijan. Historians like James Darmesteter and Ernst Herzfeld believed that Airyanem Vaeja's location is Azerbaijan and around the Caucasus.

In the meantime, the Bundahish indicates that the river Darja/ Darej, near which stood the house of Zoroaster's father, had been in Iran Vej. In this regard, Jackson notes that the Bundahish likewise alludes to Zoroaster's first offering worship in Iran Vej. He provides Darmesteter's translation of the passage from the Avesta: "Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazda on the high bank of the Darej, sitting (?) before the good Ahura Mazda... ."

Next, Jackson states that "With regard to localizations, there is good ground for believing that Airan Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah) is to be identified in part at least with Ādarbaijān, and that the ancient river Darej of the Avesta is identical with the modern Daryai. The Daryai Rūd (river) flows from Mt. Savalān (Sebīlān), in Ādarbaijān, northward into the Aras River (Araxes)."

Intriguingly, Jackson provides importantly interesting details on Zoroaster's native place and his parents: "Oriental tradition seems to be fairly correct in assigning, as his native land, the district of Atropatene or Ādarbaijān, to the west of Media, or even more precisely the neighborhood about Lake Urumiah. There is ground, furthermore, for believing in the tradition which says that his father was a native of Ādarbaijān, - a region of naphtha wells and oil fountains, - and that Zoroaster's mother was from the Median city of Ragha (Rai)."

He continues: "In the latter region probably Zoroaster was born and seems to have spent there the first part of his life, probably by the river Darja. It was there his religious meditations began. That account for his name being associated with all this territory Urmiah, Shīz, Mount Sebīlān."

Finally, Jackson concludes: "There is a great reason to believe that if, as seems most likely, Zoroaster was born in Atropatene, he was drawn toward the important city of Ragha, somewhat perhaps as Christ went to Jerusalem."

In sum, Azerbaijan's Mount Savalan is one of the sacred places in Zoroastrianism where, according to some significant sources, Prophet Zoroaster received a divine revelation. The mount may be the Avestan "Mount of the Holy Communicants." Nietzsche mentions that Prophet Zoroaster ascended Mount Savalan.

* Khalifa-zadeh M., Research Professor, Ph.D, Canadian Historical Association, Ottawa, Canada

Notice

[1] Atropatene perhaps was a place were legendary hero Feridun (Avestan: Θraētaona, Pahlavi: Frēdōn) was born and ruled up to 500 years.

[2] The oldest part of Avesta (Gathas or "Songs") roots deep to the time of Medes (Medians) and reflects the form of the Median religion. 

References:

A.V. Williams Jackson, "Zoroaster the Prophet of Ancient Iran", London 1899, 352, available at: https://archive.org/details/cu31924022982502/page/n5/mode/2up

A.V.Williams Jackson, "Where Was Zoroaster's Native Place?", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol 15, 1893, pp. 221-232, available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/592356

Friedrich Nietzsche, "Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One", Penguin Classics, 1961, 352.

“Vendidad (Vidēvdād) or Laws against the Demons, Avesta - The Sacred Books of Zoroastrianism, Book 3”, translated by James Darmesteter (From Sacred Books of the East), edited by Joseph H. Peterson, American Edition, 1898, 192, Avesta.org publishing 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd_eng.pdf

“AVESTA: VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 1”, digital edition, prepared by Joseph H. Peterson, 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd1sbe.htm

Roots Hount, "Avestan Geography", available at: https://rootshunt.com/angirasgautam/sumeriancivilizationinfulenceonhinduism/assyria/whowereasurs/avestangeography/avestangeography.htm

Gherardo Gnoli G., "Avestan Geography," Encyclopedia Iranica, 2011, Vol. III, Fasc. 1, pp. 44-47, available at: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avestan-geography

Mary Boyce, "Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices", Routledge, 1979, 252.

Oktor Skjaervø, The Avesta as source for the early history of the Iranians, In: "The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin/Munich/Boston, 1995, 155-176.

Igor Dyakonoff, “History of Media from the earliest times until the end of the 4th century BCE”; (Istoria Midii ot drevneyshikh vremen do kontsa IV v. do n.e)., Moscow and Leningrad, 1956.

George Rawlinson, "Ancient Media, Political and Cultural History of the Median Tribes",  e-artnow, 2018, 90.

Vedveer Aya, Indo-Iranian Roots in the South Caucasus, available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus

Mahir Khalifa-zadeh, Sasanian Imperial Ideology: From Anāhītā Fire In Pārs To Ādur Gušnasp Fire Temple In Ādurbādagān, International Journal of History, 2025, Vol 7, Issue 1, pp 23-28, DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/27069109.2025.v7.i1a.344

 Figures:

Fig1. 3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster#/media/File:CIMRM_44-Mithraic_pater_(Dura_Europos)_B.jpg

Fig 2.,  Mt Sabalan, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran, available at: https://www.irantourtravel.com/2017/12/the-dove-white-sabalan-mountain-soared.html

Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as described in Vendidat (Fargard 1), available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus

Fig 4. Zoroastrians pray in Ateshgah, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Azerbaijan

Fig 5. “ATESHGAH TEMPLE” STATE HISTORICAL-ARCHITECTURAL RESERVE", Surakhani, Baku, Azerbaijan available at: https://ateshgahtemple.az/en/

Atropates – King Darius III’s Mysterious General in the Battle of Gaugamela

 by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh

 January 09, 2026

 Posted from:

Khalifa-zadeh M., "Atropates - Achaemenid King Darius III’s Mysterious General in the Battle of Gaugamela", Intersections, Journal of Canadian Historical Association, Ottawa, 2025, Vol 8, Issue 3, pp 20-22.

https://cha-shc.ca/publications/intersections/

Download PDF:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/399585201_ATROPATES_-_ACHAEMENID_KING_DARIUS_III'S_MYSTERIOUS_GENERAL_IN_THE_BATTLE_OF_GAUGAMELLA

 ATROPATES (Old Persian: Ātrpātah and Pahlavi: Ātūrpāt; Ancient Greek: Ἀτροπάτης Atropátēs; (370BC – 321 BC) was a Medes (Old Persian: 𐎶𐎠𐎭, Māda) and nobleman (possibly had very distant relation to the Achaemenid House) and satrap of Media (Ancient Greek: Μεγάλη) and general who served Darius III (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, Dārayavaʰuš; Greek: Δαρεῖος Dareios, 380-330 BC) and Alexander of Macedon. He was a founder of the independent kingdom Media - Atropatene (Ancient Greek: Ἀτροπατηνή or Lesser Media) and the dynasty that was named after him. Atropates’ descendants ruled the kingdom until the 2nd century CE. The kingdom was established in c. 323 BC and was the only Iranian region to remain under Zoroastrian authority from the Achaemenids to the Muslim Arabs' conquest. [1], [2].

The early life of Atropates is unknown, but his parents were certainly Zoroastrians. There is some evidence that he was a nobleman of the Medes[3] (Old Persian: 𐎶𐎠𐎭, Māda) and possibly had a very distant relation to the Achaemenid House.[4] It is known that Cyrus the Great (590 - 529 BC), who united the Iranian people of Medes and Persians and established a new Empire under his Achaemenid dynasty, was half Mede. His mother Princess Mandane of Medes (Old Persian: Mandánē, Greek: Μανδάνη) was a daughter of the last powerful Median King Astyages (Akkadian: Ištumegu, Greek: Astuágēs, (585 - 550 BC).[5]

Fig 1. Sculpture/reconstruction of Atropates (Pahlavi: Ātūrpāt), King of Media – Atropatena,

National Military Museum, Baku, Azerbaijan

General Atropates attracts the historians’ attention because a couple of hypotheses exist regarding the origins of the name Azerbaijan. According to the classic tradition, the name comes from the time of Alexander of Macedon’s conquest of the Achaemenid Empire.

Particularly, it presumably originates from general Atropates, who was a commander of troops stationed in the Darius III’s army’s right wing in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.

Atropates, as satrap (Median/Old Persian: xšaçapāvān, Parthian/Arsacid Pahlavi: šahrab) of Media, commanded Median, Arrānian (Latin: Albanian), Sacasenian, Cadusian, and Arminian (inhabitants of Achaemenid's province of Armina, Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴, Elamite: Harminuya, Ancient Greek: Arminyaya/ Armenia) troops. Ilya Dyakonov indicated that Arrānians (Albanians) and Cadusians participated in the battle as the allies of Atropates, not of the Persians and, thus, he believed that Atropates' political influence lasted far to the north of Aras/ Araxes River.[6]

On the eve of the Gaugamela battle, Atropates commanded the mounted reconnaissance squad that Darius III sent to reconnoiter the field.

Intriguingly, during the Battle of Gaugamela, Atropates’ units pushed Alexander of Macedon’s army to stop the advance and implemented defensive measures. Only Alexander’s personal intervention with fresh troops allowed the Macedonians to stop their retreat and concentrate on a victorious advance in the center, facing troops under the direct command of Darius III.[7] 

Indeed, it was a unique moment in the battle. The Macedonian left wing had begun to retreat and, if King Darius III realized and utilized it, the battle’s outcome would have been completely different. However, as is well known, Darius III’s poor commanding and leadership skills resulted in the catastrophic defeat of the Achaemenid Army.

When Darius III lost the battle, he fled to the Median capital of Ekbātān - Achaemenids' summer capital (present-day Hamadan, Iran). Atropates, as satrap of Media, met Darius III with a great respect and helped him to get a new army.[8]

One month after Darius III’s death in June 330 BC, Atropates surrendered to Alexander. Later, in a personal meeting, Alexander mentioned Atropates’ military skills and esteemed him so highly that his daughter was married to Perdiccas - a close ally to Alexander and commander of the Macedonian cavalry. The marriage occurred at the famous mass wedding in Susa in February 324 BC.[9]^{, [10]}

It is notable that Atropates traveled to Susa together with Alexander and offered 100 Amazons (Fig 2), as Greeks called beautiful female archers from Media and Arrān[11] (Latin: Albania, present-day Azerbaijan), for the Macedonian and Greek military elite.[12] As Strabo mentioned, referring to Theophanes of Mitylene, who participated in Pompey’s campaign in Caucasus in 65 BC, Amazons lived in the Caucasian mountains above Albania: “In the mountains above Albania the Amazons are said to live" (Greek: ἐν δὲ τοῖς ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἀλβανίας ὄρεσι καὶ τὰς Ἀμαζόνας οἰκεῖν φασι)”.[13]

Fig 2. Greek fighting an Amazon. Detail from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350-325B.C.E., available at:  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Produzione_greca_o_magnogreca,_sarcofago_delle_amazzoni,_350-325_a.C._ca,_da_tarquinia_05.JPG

In 324 B.C. Atropates pacified unrest against the Greeks, and Alexander decided to keep him as a King of the land, which later became the independent (or semi-independent, vassal of Arsacid Parthia) kingdom of Atropatena (Parthian/Arsacid Pahlavi: Āturpātakān, Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) with its capital at Ganzak/Gazaca (Greek: Γάζακα).

Atropates had a last interview with Alexander in Media in 324-323, who came to inspect the breeding of the ancient world-famous Nisaean horses for the Macedonian army (Alexander's Bucephalus was a Nisaean horse).[14]

Alexander acknowledged the geostrategic location of Medes' Ecbatana for its approximately equal distance from Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. In Ecbatana, Alexander left a huge treasure of 180,000 talents as a special reserve garrisoned by a force of 6000 Macedonians. By establishing the military base for Alexander's main army, Ecbatana became the most important military center of his empire. Ecbatana was the place where Bessus (Bactria's Viceroy and slaughterer of Darius III) was executed and his body was publicly exposed to the Macedonian soldiers.[15]

After Alexander's death in June 323 BC, Atropates did not participate in Alexander's satraps and generals meeting in Babylon. However, thanks to his diplomatic and political skills, he became one of only two non-Macedonians (along with Alexander's Bactrian father-in-law Oxyartes), who were listed as holding a satrapy of Media – Atropatene (Lesser Media) after the division of the empire between Alexander's successors.[16]

Atropates was a strong follower of Zarathustra (Zoroaster) and his name was neither Median nor Persian but Zoroastrian. The name Ātūrpāt originates from Avesta's word “Âtare-pâta”, (keeper of the fire), who was one of the sons of Zarathustra.[17] The transcription of the name Ātūrpāt from Pahlavi (Middle Persian) could be “protected by fire”.[18]

Fig 3. King Atropates ((Ātūrpāt) meets Alexander of Macedon, painting 1956,

National Museum of History, Baku, Azerbaijan

It is known that Atropates enjoyed support from Zoroastrian priests or Magi/Maguses (Old Persian: 𐎶𐎦𐏁 magoš; Pahlavi: maguš; Ancient Greek μάγος magos) to minimize the Greeks’ impact on Zoroastrianism in Media - Atropatena.[19]

Indeed, the Achaemenids' favored Goddess Anāhītā[20] fire temple had been sacked and desecrated by Alexander of Macedon, who had burnt there the 12,000 ox-hides on which the original Avesta was written in golden lettering and which had been placed in the Fortress of Archives in the city of Istakhr in Pārs.[21]

However, Atropates was able to secure the fire temple of Ādur Gušnasp[22] in Šiz (now Azar Gushnasp in Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian Azerbaijan), where the other copy of the Holy Avesta was preserved and copied on calf skins.[23]^{, [24]}

Later, under the order of Sasanian King Shāpūr I (240-272), the fire of Ādur Gušnasp (the last survived Great Fire of State) was classified as the empire’s most sacred victorious (Pahlavi: pērōzgar) warriors’ (Pahlavi: artēštār) class fire of the highest grade, holding the rank of “cathedral”.

The fire of Ādur Gušnasp, as Ataš Bahrām (Parthian: Ātaš-i Wahrām or Pahlavi: Ādur Bahrām - “fires of Victory,” the Zoroastrian name of the God of War and Victory), was the most sacred or “cathedral” fire of the highest grade in Zoroastrianism, established in the late Achaemenid or Parthian era in Ādurbādagān in Media. Each new king, as Sasanian King Shāpūr I proclaimed, was obligated to make a pilgrimage after coronation to Ādur Gušnasp, providing royal gifts and celebrating Nowruz (Pahlavi: No Ruz).[25]

Finally, as one may assume, General Atropates (Āturpāt) occupies a significant place in the history of Azerbaijan and Iran. His name, possibly, is the key to understand the origin of the name Azerbaijan - a land of fire (Azerbaijani: odlar yurdu). Eventually, the Pahlavi name Ādurbādagān evolved into the Turkified form of Azarbaijan/Azerbaijan. This is where the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Iranian province of Azerbaijan get their name.

·       Khalifa-zadeh Mahir, research Professor, PhD, regular contributor to international outlets on history and global politics, member of the Canadian Historical Association and Canadian Political Science Association

Reference

---

[1] Chaumont M.L., (2011). "ATROPATES", Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1, pp. 17-18, available at: https://iranicaonline.org/articles/atropates-aturpat-lit 

[2] Diakonov I. Istoriya Midii ot drevneĭshikh vremen do kontsa 4 v. do n.e. (History of Media from ancient time till the end of 4^th century), Moscow & Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1956, 453.

[3] Diakonov I. 1956, 453.

[4] Iran's Neighbor to the North West, ATROPATENE (Earlier Media Atropatene), available at  https://www.the-persians.co.uk/atropatene.htm

[5] Schmitt R., (2000), “MANDANE”, Encyclopedia Iranica, available at https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mandane

[6] Diakonov I. 1956, 453.

[7] Shifman I., “Aleksand Makedonskui” (Alexander of Macedon), Izdatelstvo Nauka, Moskva, 1988, 205. 

[8] “ATROPATES”, (2018), Livius.org, Articles on ancient history, available at  https://www.livius.org/articles/person/atropates/ 

[9] Dyakonov I., “Ocherk istorii drevnego Irana”, (History of Ancient Iran), in Russian, Izdatelstvo Vostochnoi Literaturi, Moskva, 1961, 444.

[10] Schippmann K., (2014). “AZERBAIJAN iii. Pre-Islamic History”, Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 2, pp. 221-224, available at https://iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iii

[11] Bosworth C.E., (2012). "ARRĀN", Encyclopedia Iranica, II/5, pp. 520-522, available online at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arran-a-region

[12] Mayor A., (2017). "AMAZONS IN THE IRANIAN WORLD". Encyclopedia Iranica; available at https://iranicaonline.org/articles/amazons-ii 

[13] Giusto T., “Strabo and the Caucasian Albanians: some Preliminary Remarks”, Constructions identitaires en Asie Mineure (VIIIe siècle avant J.-C.–IIIe siècle après J.-C.), Année 2021, 199-211, available at:  https://www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_2021_act_1522_1_3893 

[14] Sykes P.M. "A History of Persia", Vol 1, Taylor and Francis, Revised ed., 2011, 644.

[15] Sykes P.M. 2011.

[16] Hyland J., (2013). Alexander’s Satraps of Media, Journal of Ancient History, Vol. 1, Issue 2, https://doi.org/10.1515/jah-2013-0008

[17] “ATROPATES”, Livius.org 

[18] Chaumont M.L., (2011). Encyclopedia Iranica

[19] Dandamayev M., (2012). “MAGI”, Encyclopedia Iranica, available at: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/magi

[20] Soudar A., “The Formation of Achaemenid Imperial Ideology and Its Impact on the Avesta”, The World of Ancient Persia, Ed by John Curtis and St John Simpson, Proceedings of a conference at the British Museum 29th September–1st October 2005, 111-138. 

[21] Kotwal F, and Kreyenbroek P. (2011). “ALEXANDER THE GREAT ii. In Zoroastrian Tradition”, Encyclopedia Iranica, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alexander-the-great-ii 

[22] Yamamoto Y., (1979). "The Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire in Archaeology and Literature (I)". Orient 15, 19-53.

[23] Gamsakhurdia K. (2020). Fire Priests and Magi in Iberia. Tbilisi State University. SPEKALI, Vol. 4. https://www.spekali.tsu.ge/index.php/en/article/viewArticle/14/230

[24] Ghodrat-Dizaji M., (2007). Administrative Geography of The Early Sasanian Period: Case of Ādurbādagān, Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies. Vol.45, pp. 87-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2007.11864720

[25] Khalifa-zadeh M., (2024). Sasanian Imperial Strategy and King Xusrō I Anōšīrvān’s Reform: The Case of Ādurbādagān and Arrān (Caucasian Albania), International Journal of History, Vol. 6, Issue 1, 111- 121. https://doi.org/10.22271/27069109.2024.v6.i1b.271

 

Figures 

Fig 1. Sculpture/reconstruction of Atropates (Ātūrpāt), King of Media – Atropatena,  National Military Museum, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19311/sculpture-of-atropates/ 

Fig 2. A Greek fighting an Amazon. Detail from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350-325B.C.E., available at:  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Produzione_greca_o_magnogreca,_sarcofago_delle_amazzoni,_350-325_a.C._ca,_da_tarquinia_05.JPG 

Fig 3. King Atropates (Ātūrpāt) meets Alexander of Macedon, painting, National Museum of History, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17373/king-atropates-meets-alexander/

Armenia, Albania and Iberia in the Sasanian Period, III-V Century

 by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh

Armenia, Albania, and Iberia in Sasanian period, III-V centuries,
Legend in Russian, Lukonin, Moscow, 1969

The stretching of Albania (Pahlavi: Ārān) over the left and right sides of the Kur/a river (Old Persian: Kuruš⁠, Greek: Κῦρος Kyros, Latin: Cyrus, Azerbaijani/Turkish: Kür) in the Sasanian Period, III-VII centuries. 

Following the partition of Sasanian Armin/a (Latin: Armenia) between the Byzantine and Sasanian empires in 387 AD, the Sasanians transferred the Kur/a river right bank's principalities (Pahlavi toponyms*): Uti/k, Šakašēn,  Arc’sax [from Parthian: Aršak/ Arsak?, possibly originating from the name of the ruling Parthian Arsacid/ Aršakid dynasty of Albania], Kolt, Xach'en, Siunia/ Siwnik and Gardman to Albania (Garsoian 1997, Chaumont 2014). 

In 428 AD, the Sasanians also transferred Armin/a's Paytakaran*/ Balasakan (now Baylagan in Azerbaijan) and Parskahayk to Aturpatakan (Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) [now Iranian Azerbaijan] (Greenwood 2008).

Caucasian Albania in the Sasanian period, IV-VII centuries, Legend in Azerbaijani, available at:  https://www.azerbaijans.com/content_362_en.html

As American scholar James Robert Russell (1985) correctly mentioned, all Armenian toponyms are borrowings from the Parthian Arsacid (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Pahlavi (Middle Persian) languages.

* Paytakaran - Parthian: karan [land]/ Payt' karan [land of Payt - tribe or name], Pahlavi: Balāsagān; now part of Iran; and Lankaran, Salyan and city of Baylagan, Azerbaijan

Khalifa-zadeh M., Research Professor, Ph.D, Canadian Historical Association, 130 Albert Street, Suite 1912, Ottawa, ON, K1P5G4, Canada

Sources:

Lukonin V.G., Kultura Sasanidskogo Irana, ("Культура Сасанидского Ирана. Иран в III-V вв"), Moscow, 1969, 244, available at: https://www.scribd.com/document/445940284/Lukonin-v-g-kultura-sasanidskogo-irana-iran-v-iiiv-vv

Garsoian N., The Marzpanate (428-652), in: The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, ed. Richard Hovannisian, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. p. 95-117, available at: https://archive.org/details/garsoian-1997-marzpanate/page/96/mode/2up

Greenwood T., Sasanian Reflections in Armenian Sources, e-Sasanika, 2008; p.15:28, available at: https://bpb-us-e2.wpmucdn.com/sites.uci.edu/dist/c/347/files/2020/01/e-sasanika3-Greenwood.pdf

Chaumont M.L., "ALBANIA", Encyclopedia Iranica, 2014, Vol. I/8, pp. 806-810, available at: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm/

Russell, J.R.,  “Armeno-Iranica,” in D. Bivar and J. Hinnells, eds., Papers in Honor of Professor Mary Boyce (Acta Iranica 25), Leiden, 1985, pp. 447-458, available at: https://www.azargoshnasp.net/history/Armenian/armeno-iranica.pdf

Minorsky V., Caucasia IV, London, 1953, 32

Map of Azerbaijan in the Safavid period

by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh

Created: 4 August, 2025

Azerbaijan within the Safavid Empire, Stephen P. Blake, Cambridge University, 2013

The Safavid Empire, Stephen P. Blake, Cambridge University, 2013

Source:

Stephen P. Blake, “Time in Early Modern Islam Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires”; Cambridge University Press, 2013, 21-47, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139343305.004