by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh*
Created: 30 April 2026
Updated: 25 August, 2026
Posted and expanded from:
Khalifa-zadeh M., "Zoroastrianism and its Prophet Zoroaster: Where Zoroaster Communed with God?", International Journal of Innovative Studies in Humanities and Social Studies, USA, 2026, Vol 2, Issue 3, 1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71123/3067-7319.020301
PDF: https://www.academia.edu/167653259/ZOROASTRIANISM_AND_ITS_PROPHET_IS_AZERBAIJAN_WHERE_ZOROASTER_COMMUNICATED_WITH_GOD
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Fig 1. Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Parthian city of Dura Europos, Syria (300 BC) |
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's
oldest religions. Zoroastrianism left a footprint in Iran many centuries before
the arrival of Christianity (later established as the Church of the East/
Church of Persia) and Islam in this country. The Great Achaemenid Kings
(r. 550–330 BC), highly likely, were followers of Zoroastrianism (now commonly termed as "Mazdaism" for the Achaemenid period) and supported its strengthening
in their Empire. In the meantime, there are some views that Cyrus the Great (r. 580 - 529 BC) was already Zoroastrian, unifying Medians and Persians under his rule.
However, only in the Sasanian period did Zoroastrianism become the official religion in Iran (Ērānšahr, at the
time). The Sasanian King Shāpūr I (r. 239-270 CE), son of the Sasanian Empire
founder Ardaxšīr I Bābakān (r. 180–242 CE), proclaimed Zoroastrianism as the empire's official religion.
The essence of Zoroastrianism is
that human beings must be on the truth (Avestan: Aṣ̌a) side, helping to
support order, peace, righteousness and justice that the principal God Ahura Mazdā
(Avestan: Ahuramazda, Median: Ahura Mazdaka, Pahlavi: Hormizd) tries to maintain, while
battling with the destructive spirit or evil Angra Manyu (Avestan: Aŋra Mainiiu,
Pahlavi: Ahreman). Zoroastrianism teaches that Ahura Mazdā is the highest object of adoration, the true Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the universe. From him all good comes to man. The Bisitun Inscription designates Ahura Mazdā as "the god of the Aryans".
There is a popular misinterpretation
that Zoroastrians worshiped fire. The fire (Avestan: Ātarš, later Zoroastrian holy fire: Ātaš/ Ātar, Parthian/ Pahlavi: Ādur) was a “tool” or “messenger” for communicating with Ahura Mazdā, the creator and guardian of justice and a friend
of the just man. Zoroastrian Magi (Avestan: Maga, Median/Old Persian: Magu, Middle Persian/ Pahlavi: maguš), or priests acted as a Mediator between the worshiper and the divinity. The Magi/ Magus [1], as Igor Diakonoff believed, were a specially trained tribe or caste of the Medes (Pahlavi: Mād/a, Greek: Medians) and played a critical role in Zoroastrian society. The Magian Church held significant power and influence that the Shah could not ignore.
Interestingly, Diakonoff argued that the Medes, as an Aryan tribe, were the first to adopt Zoroastrianism, and that the first Achaemenids were the next. George Rawlinson believed that it was in Media that the Magies were first found acting in the capacity of Aryan priests, thrusting into the background the old Aryan belief. The Medes never apostatized from the worship to Ahura Mazdā or surrendered their Dualistic belief.
The origin and development of
Zoroastrianism associate with the Prophet (Avestan: paygambar)
Zoroaster (Avestan: Zaraθuštra, Greek, Ζωροάστρης/ Zōroastrēs, Pahlavi:
zltw(h)št Zar(a)du(x)št). He, as Philippe Kreyenbroek believes, authored the Gāthās (Hymns) [2] and rejected the cult of the old Aryan group of gods known as daevas (Avestan: daēuua) in favor to One True God - Ahura Mazdā.
Zoroaster in Avestan (language of Zoroastrians' Avesta, a collection of the sacred texts, likely have been composed in Achaemenid times by about 400 BC) means the owner of
yellow or golden (zarat) camels (uštra). However, whether name Zoroaster was the Prophet's own or it was a title remains uncertain and for the lack of evidence has never been satisfactorily explained.
There is a diversity of opinion with reference to Zoroaster's time. The classical tradition, based on Xanthos of Lydia (470 BC, first Greek writer who mentioned Zoroaster), Aristotle (350 BC), Eudoxus of Cnidus (368 BC), and Plutarch (50-120 CE) statements, places Zoroaster 5000 years before the Trojan war, or 6000 years before Xerxes' (r. 518-465 BC) crossing the Hellespont.
Indeed, it is of great interest for scholars to identify when and where Zoroaster was born and where he came to preach. His name origin, life, and preaching continue to be a subject of intensive debates among the historians.
There are wide discussions among modern scholars about Zoroaster's date, fueling by the existing discrepancy in the classical statements. Some scholars, such as Oktor Skjaervo, believe that Zoroaster lived
1700-1200 years before Christ. Karl Geldner argues that if the Gāthās (Avesta's earliest part) reach back to the lifetime of Zoroaster, so the Prophet lived around 1400 BC. However, others, like Gherardo Gnoli, referring
to Greek sources, suppose that he flourished around 300-500 years before Alexander of Macedon. Williams Jackson assigned Zoroaster's birth about 300 years before 330 BC, the date of the fall of the Achaemenid empire through Alexander's conquest or around 630 BC.
Interestingly, Middle Persian Zoroastrian text of Ardā-i Wīrāz nāmag (Book of the Righteous Wīrāz) [3] mentions that at the end of 300 years of righteous Zaratosht's religion the "foul Evil Spirit tries to make men doubtful in regard to this religion, instigated the accursed Alexander... so that he came to the country of Iran with severe cruelty and devastation, he also slew the ruler of Iran, and destroyed the metropolis and empire and made them desolate". Thus, the Magians count around 300 years (more exactly 258 years) between their Prophet Zoroaster and Alexander. They also state that Zoroaster taught 35 years and died at the age of seventy seven. However, there is a lot of skepticism within the scholars to determine with any accuracy the date of Zoroaster's life based on classical and the Pahlavi works.
Next, regarding Zoroaster’s birthplace,
some scholars, citing classical Greek sources, identify him as a Bactrian,
mentioning him as Zoroaster the Magian, king of Bactria. However, others
argue that he was from Balkh, which is now in Afghanistan.
In the meantime, there are certain sources and accounts, based on which the scholars believe that Zoroaster probably was a native of Azerbaijan and first appeared in western
Iran, either in Atropatene [5] (Greek: Ἀτροπατηνή, Old Persian: Ātūr-pātakān,
Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) or in Media (Assyrian: Mādāya, Median/ Old Persian: Māda'a).
Indeed,
several classical sources name Zoroaster as a Mede (Median) and member of the great Median house of Spitāma (Pahlavi: zartušt ē spitāmān), placing him in Ādarbījān or Media-Atropatene. The house of Spitāma was powerful and rich and the last Median King Astyīgās' daughter Amytis had first married with Spitamas and later Cyrus the Great.
Media's Urmiah (Avestan: Čēčast), as several sources mention, probably was a native place of Zoroaster. Moses of Chorene (431 CE) mentions Zoroaster as “a
Magian, the sovereign of the Medes”, who seized Nineveh, placing him as a contemporary of Semiramis (r. 811-806 BC), queen-regent of the Assyrian empire.
The Arabic Chronicon of Bar Ebhraya (also known as Tārīkh Mukhtaṣar al-Duwal or "History of the Dynasties") mentions the following: "In those days (of Cambyses) came Zaradosht chief of the Magian sect, by birth of Ādarbījān...". [Here, Cambyses is likely Cyrus the Great's father, rather than his son].
The Bundahishn (Middle Persian/ Pahlavi: Bun-dahišn(īh), "Primal Creation", a Pahlavi compilation based on Zoroastrian scriptures) mentions that Zoroaster's father's house stood near the river Darja/Darej (Pahlavi: Dāraja) that flows from Mount Sabalan/ Savalan in Ādarbījān (Atropatene) into the Aras (classical Araxes) river (present-day Azerbaijan).
The Arabic writer Kazwini associates Zoroaster with the ancient city of Shīz or
Ganzaka (Greek: Γάζακα), capital of Atropatene. Rawlinson and Minorsky
identify Shīz with modern Takht-e Soleiman in Azerbaijan (Iran), where are the
ruins of Ādur Gušnasp fire (now Azargoshnasp), one of the three Great Fires of
ancient Iran.
Interestingly, Zoroastrian text of Ardā-i Wīrāz nāmag as well as Arabic historians Tabari and Masudi mention that Alexander of Macedon burnt the 12,000 oxhides of the original Avesta, which was written in golden lettering. It was kept in the Fortress (House) of Archives (Daz-i Napisht, Pahlavi: diz ī nibišt, "fortress of writings") at the city of Istakhr in Pārs or in the library of Ganj-i Shapigan (Pahlavi: ganj ī šāhīgān/ ganj ī xwadāyān, The Royal Treasure) in Persepolis.
According to Zoroastrian and Parsi tradition, King Vištāsp (first ruler, who followed Zoroaster's teaching) ordered master copies of the Avesta's twenty-one Nasks or volumes written by Zoroaster to be deposit in the royal libraries of Daz-i Napisht and/or Ganj-i Shapigan, which were burnt and destroyed by the Macedonians.
Thus, Ardā-i Wīrāz nāmag says: "Alexander ... came to Iran... and burnt... the whole of the Avesta and the Zand as written in liquid gold on prepared cowhides . . . and deposited in Staxr Pābagān" [Istakhr in Pārs].
In the meantime, there are certain sources, indicating that probably another copy of the Holy Avesta, copied on calf skins was kept in the fire temple of Ādur Gušnasp in Shīz. Herzfeld believes that Shīz' copy was carried to Egypt and translated into Greek (in the library of Alexandria). Aturpāt (Atropates), Achaemenid King Darius III's general and satrap of Media and later of Media-Atropatene, had been able to secure the holy fire of Ādur Gušnasp not to be ransacked by the Macedonians.
The Sasanian King Šāpūr I (r. 239-270) granted a rank of “cathedral” to the Ādur Gušnasp
fire and ordered to collect Avesta's all surviving scriptures. His powerful mobedān mobed (priest of priests) or supreme Magi Kirdīr was
affiliated with the fire-temple of Ādur Gušnasp. Later, during the King Šāpūr II's reign (r. 309-370), the Avesta was canonized in Avestan script written by the mobedān mobed Ādurbād-ī Mahrspandān, who introduced the Prophet's name writing as zltw(h)št Zar(a)du(x)št and ceased all oral tradition. Influenceable Ādurbād-ī
Mahrspandān (“Ādurbād, son of Mahraspand”) was
also affiliated with Ādur Gušnasp in Azerbaijan. Herzfeld comments that the magi of Ādharbāijān belonging to the Atropanenian line were more powerful and influenceable than the Persian.
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Fig 3. Mt Savalan/ Sebīlān, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran
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Next,
the passage from Kazwini (quoted from Rawlinson) reads: "In Shiz is the
fire- temple of Azerekhsh [Pahlavi: Ādur Gušnasp/ Ādhar Gušnasp], the
most celebrated of the Pyraea of the Magi; in the days of the fire-worship, the
kings always came on foot, upon pilgrimage. The temple of Azerekhsh is ascribed
to Zeratusht, the founder of the Magian religion, who went, it is said, from
Shiz to the mountain of Sebīlān and, after remaining there some time in
retirement, returned with the Zend-Avesta, which, although written in the old
Persian language, could not be understood without a commentary. After this, he
declared himself to be a prophet."
According to Williams Jackson,
speaking on Shīz in Ādarbaijān, Kazwini continued: "Zarādusht, the prophet
of the Magians, takes his origin from here (i.e., Ādarbaijān). It is said that
he came from Shīz. He went to the mountain Sabalān, separated from men."
Indeed, there is an account indicating that Zoroaster began to preach on the Mt. Sabalan/ Savalan (Pahlavi:
Sebīlān, 4811 m). The mount is in the modern Ardabil county of
Azerbaijan in Iran. The people of Azerbaijan call Mt. Soltan Savalan,
describing it as a holy mountain.
Remarkably,
Jackson writes that the Avesta mentions a hill by the river Darja where
Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazdā. He argues that the hill (zbarah) or
mountain (gairi) is the Mount Sebīlān. According to him, the Avesta's Darja
River is probably the modern Darya (?) river, which flows from Mt. Sebīlān into the
Aras river (Araxes).
Interestingly, the Vidēvdāt (Sasanian collection of Avesta's scriptures) mentions 16 perfect lands (asah) and countries (šōiθra),
which Ahura Mazdā created for His people. Avestan Geography identifies Avesta's
Iran Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah, Pahlavi: Ērān-wēz, “the area
of the Aryans”), the stem-land of the Aryan race, with Atropatene [Azerbaijan]. According to Vidēvdāt, Ērān-wēz or Iran Vej was the first-best country created by Ahura Mazdā for the Aryan people. Some scholars indicate that the Aryan migration occurred descending downwards through the Caucasus towards the hospital south.
Williams Jackson writes that the Bundahish (29.12) directly connects Iran Vej (the holy land of
Zoroastrianism where Zarathushtra was born and founded his religion
there) with Atropatene [4]: "Aīrān Vej pavan kōst-ī Ātūr-pātakān" that rendered by Edward West (first translator of Bundahishn) as the following: "Eranvej is in the direction of Ataro-patakan (Azerbaijan)."
However,
James Darmesteter (first translator of the Zend-Avesta identifies the
province Airyanem Vaeja (Iran Vej), or Eranwej, with Arran (nowadays known as
Karabagh, present-day Azerbaijan). He translates the passage from Avesta Vendidāt/Vidēvdād (Fargard 1) as follows: “Ahura Mazda spake Zarathushtra, saying: The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyana Vaeja, by the Vanguhi Daitya.”
According to the Bundahishn, as Darmesteter mentions, Airyanem Vaeja or Iran-Vej is "bordering upon Adarbajan" that now is Azerbaijan that borders with the Caspian Sea [5] (Avestan: Vourukaša, Pahlavi: Frākhvkard, "having wide shores") on the east and by Media proper on the south, and by Arran on the north. He highlights that the belonging to Arran, the river of Vanguhi Daitya (Avestan: Vaŋuhī Dāityā, the “good Dāityā” [6]) "must be the modern Aras (classical Araxes) river." For several reasons, he excludes Media and suits Arran to be Iran-Vej as the original seat of the Aryans. It is interesting to note, that the Zend-Avesta (Yasht 5.104) mentions Vanguhi Daitya as a river where Zoroaster offered a sacrifice to the goddess of the waters Anāhitā to convert Vīštāspa, first ruler who accepted Zoroaster's teaching.
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| Fig 5. Zoroastrians (locals, Iranians and Parsis) pray in Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
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| Fig 5. Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
Truly,
the region of Arran (Pahlavi: Ārān), also known as the Caucasian Albanian, is
the present-day Azerbaijan, bordering with the Caspian Sea on the east and Iranian Azerbaijan (classical Media-Atropatena) on the south.
As someone can mention, Zoroastrian tradition identifies Ayriianəm Vaēǰah with Azerbaijan. The Pahlavi and Sasanian books introduce Airyanem
Vaeja around Azerbaijan. And, historians like James Darmesteter and Ernst Herzfeld
believed that Airyanem Vaeja's location is Azerbaijan and around the Caucasus. Intriguingly, in the Avesta, the Ranhā/ Rasā river associates with Ayriianəm Vaēǰah that allows the modern Zoroastrian Parsis' scholars to assume that it might mean the Aras river.
The Bundahishn (20.32) directly mentions that the river Darja/ Darej, near which
stood the house of Zoroaster's father, Pourušaspa Spitāma, had been in Iran Vej. Hezfeld provides the following passage from the Bundahishn: "Dāraǰa rōt pat ērānvēž kē.š mān ē parušasp pitar e zartušt pa bār būt", rendering it as the follow: "Daraja is a river in Ērānvēž, on the bank of which stood the palace of Purušasp, father of Zoroaster". The Bundahishn (24.15) states: "The Daraja river is the chief of exalted rivers, for the dwelling of the father of Zartosht was on its banks, and Zartosht was born there."
In the meantime, Jackson notes that the Bundahishn likewise alludes to Zoroaster's first offering
worship in Iran Vej. He provides Darmesteter's translation of the passage from
the Avesta: "Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazda on the high bank of the
Darej, sitting (?) before the good Ahura Mazda... ". Herzfeld mentions that river was located "in Ērānvēž" and Zoroaster (Yasht 5,104) prayed "at the mouth of the Vahvī [good] Dātiyā of the Aryans." The Bundahishn accounts that Zoroaster's age was 30 when he beheld the first vision of Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazdā).
Next,
Jackson states that "With regard to localizations, there is good ground
for believing that Airan Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaāēǰah) is to be
identified in part at least with Ādarbaijān, and that the ancient river Dāraja of the Avesta is identical with the modern Daryai. The Daryai Rūd (river) flows
from Mt. Savalān (Sebīlān), in Ādarbaijān, northward into the Aras River
(Araxes)."
Regarding Zoroaster's native place
and his parents, Jackson comments: "Oriental tradition seems to be fairly correct in
assigning, as his native land, the district of Atropatene or Ādarbaijān, to the
west of Media, or even more precisely the neighborhood about Lake Urumiah.
There is ground, furthermore, for believing in the tradition which says that
his father Pourušaspa ["with grey horses"] was a native of Ādarbaijān, - a region of naphtha wells and oil
fountains, - and that Zoroaster's mother Dugdōvā ["who has milked cows"] was from the Median city of Ragha
(Rai)."
He
continues: "In the latter region probably Zoroaster was born and seems to
have spent there the first part of his life, probably by the river Darja. It
was there his religious meditations began. That account for his name being
associated with all this territory Urmiah, Shīz, Mount Sebīlān."
Finally,
Jackson concludes: "There is a great reason to believe that if, as seems
most likely, Zoroaster was born in Atropatene, he was drawn toward the
important city of Ragha, somewhat perhaps as Christ went to Jerusalem". Jackson considered Ragha (Ragā) of Media as "Zāraθuštriš a "Papal See."
In
summing up, Azerbaijan's Mount Savalan is one of the sacred places in Zoroastrianism
where, according to some significant sources, Prophet Zoroaster received a
divine revelation. The mount may be the Avestan "Mount of the Holy
Communicants." Nietzsche mentions that Prophet Zoroaster ascended Mount
Savalan.
Later, in the Sasanian period, Ādurbādagān [Azerbaijan] became a center of Zoroastrian propaganda and religious "core" province of the Sasanian empire, projecting its influence, name and military functions on Arran (Caucasian Albania, present-day Azerbaijan) up to the Darband fortress on the Caspian shores that resulted, as we believe, that the name Azerbaijan became common in use on the both south and north banks of the Aras (Araxes) river.
* Khalifa-zadeh M., Research
Professor, Ph.D, Canadian Historical Association, Ottawa, Canada
Notices
[1] There was another class of fire priest or title of Magi/ Magus (Parthian: āturšpat, fire - ātur, "fire master"). The Magi had a special sect called "Fire Kindlers" (Pyraithoi/ "fire igniters").
[2] The oldest part of Avesta (Gathas or Songs/ Hymns) roots deep to the time of Medes (Medians) and reflects the form of the Median religion.
[3] The book probably was written in 3rd century, during the time of the first Sasanian king Ardaxšīr I Babakan.
[4] Atropatene perhaps was a place where legendary hero Feridun (Avestan: Θraētaona, Pahlavi: Frēdōn) was born and ruled up to 500 years. According to both Zoroastrian and Parsi tradition, Feridun had second son with name of Tur, who was a brave warrior. He ruled the land in the East or Turān/ Turkistan (The land of Tur) that was Anērān (not-Iran).
[5] According to Zoroastrian myth, the Holy Fire (Ātar/Ātur) fought with Dragon-Three Head Monster (Avestan: Aži Dahāka) for the Divine Glory in Ahura Mazdā 's created ocean of Vourukaša, which some scholars identify with the Caspian Sea.
[6] River Vaŋuhī Dāityā, the “good Dāityā” or River of the Good Law/Religion.
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Figures:
Fig1.
3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria,
available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster#/media/File:CIMRM_44-Mithraic_pater_(Dura_Europos)_B.jpg
Fig 2. Life of Zoroaster/ Zoroaster at the court of King Vištāsp. Liebig collectors' card 1936, available at: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/zoroaster-at-the-court-of-king-vishtaspa--124834220901326538/
Fig 3., Mt Sabalan, Ardabil county,
Azerbaijan, Iran, available at: https://www.irantourtravel.com/2017/12/the-dove-white-sabalan-mountain-soared.html
Fig 4. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as described in Vendidat (Fargard 1), available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus
Fig 5. Zoroastrians pray in Ateshgah, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Azerbaijan
Fig 6. “ATESHGAH TEMPLE” STATE HISTORICAL-ARCHITECTURAL
RESERVE", Surakhani, Baku, Azerbaijan available at: https://ateshgahtemple.az/en/
_B.jpg){kind=link}
