by Mahir Khalifa-zadeh*
Created: 30 April 2026
Updated: 14 May, 2026
Posted and expanded from:
Khalifa-zadeh M., "Zoroastrianism and its Prophet Zoroaster: Where Zoroaster Communed with God?", International Journal of Innovative Studies in Humanities and Social Studies, USA, 2026, Vol 2, Issue 3, 1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71123/3067-7319.020301
available at: https://aytinpublications.com/International-Journal-of-Innovative-Studies-in-Humanities-and-Social-Studies/about.php
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Fig 1. 3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria |
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's
oldest religions. Zoroastrianism left a footprint in Iran many centuries before
the arrival of Christianity (later established as the Church of the East/
Church of Persia) and Islam in this country. The Great Achaemenid Kings
(550–330 BC) were followers of Zoroastrianism and supported its strengthening
in their Empire.
However, only in the Sasanian period
did Zoroastrianism become the official religion in Iran (Ērānšahr, at the
time). The Sasanian King Shāpūr I (r. 239-270 CE), son of the Sasanian Empire
founder Ardaxšīr I (r. 180–242 CE), proclaimed Zoroastrianism as the only
official religion of the empire.
The essence of Zoroastrianism is
that human beings must be on the truth (Avestan: Aṣ̌a) side, helping to
support order, peace, righteousness and justice that the principal God Ahura Mazdā
(Avestan: Ahuramazda, Pahlavi: Hormizd) tries to maintain, while
battling with the destructive spirit or evil Angra Manyu (Avestan: Aŋra Mainiiu,
Pahlavi: Ahreman). Zoroastrianism teaches that Ahura Mazdā is the highest object of adoration, the true Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the universe. From him all good comes to man.
There is a popular misinterpretation
that Zoroastrians worshiped fire. However, the fire (Avestan: Ātaš) was a “tool” or “messenger” for communicating with Ahura Mazdā, the creator and guardian of justice and a friend
of the just man. Zoroastrian Magi (Pahlavi: maguš), or priests, as Igor Diakonoff believed, were a specially trained tribe or caste of the Medes (Pahlavi: Mād/a, Greek: Medians) who played a critical role in Zoroastrian society. The Magi/ Magus acted as a Mediator between the worshiper and the divinity. The Magian Church held significant power and influence that the Shah could not ignore.
Interestingly, Diakonoff argued that the Medes, as an Aryan tribe, were the first to adopt Zoroastrianism, and that the first Achaemenids were the next. George Rawlinson believed that it was in Media that the Magies were first found acting in the capacity of Aryan priests, thrusting into the background the old Aryan belief. The Medes never apostatized from the worship to Hormizd or surrendered their Dualistic belief.
Next, the origin and development of
Zoroastrianism are associated with a prophet (Avestan: paygambar)
Zoroaster (Avestan: Zaraθuštra, Greek, Ζωροάστρης/ Zōroastrēs, Pahlavi:
zltw(h)št Zar(a)du(x)št). His
name in Avestan (language of the sacred book “Avesta”) means the owner of
yellow or golden (zarat) camels (uštra). However, his name origin, life, and preaching continue to be a subject of intensive debates among the historians.
Indeed, it is of great interest for
scholars to identify when and where Zoroaster was born and where he came to
preach. Truly, there are wide discussions among historians about when Zoroaster
lived. Some scholars, such as Oktor Skjaervo, believe that Zoroaster lived
1700-1200 years before Christ. However, others, like Gherardo Gnoli, referring
to Greek sources, argue that he lived around 300-500 years before the military
expedition of Alexander of Macedon against the Achaemenid Empire.
Regarding Zoroaster’s birthplace,
some scholars, citing classical Greek sources, identify him as a Bactrian,
mentioning him as Zoroaster the Magian, king of the Bactrians. However, others
argue that he was from Balkh, which is now in Afghanistan. In the meantime,
historians do not exclude that Prophet Zoroaster first appeared in western
Iran, either in Atropatene (Greek: Ἀτροπατηνή, Old Persian: Ātūrpātakān,
Pahlavi: Ādurbādagān) or in Media (Assyrian: Mādāya, Old Persian: Māda'a).
Indeed,
several classical sources name Zoroaster as a Mede (Median), placing him in
Adarbījān or Media-Atropatene. They point out Urmia as Zoroaster's native
place. Moses of Chorene (431 CE) mentions Zoroaster as “a
Magian, the sovereign of the Medes.”
The
Bundahish (Middle Persian: Bun-dahišn(īh), "Primal Creation",
a Pahlavi compilation based on Zoroastrian scriptures) mentions that his
father's house stood near the river Darja/Darej (Pahlavi: Dāraja) that
flows from Mount Sabalan/ Savalan in Ādarbījān (Atropatene) into the Aras
(Araxes) river (present-day Azerbaijan).
However,
the Arabic writer Kazwini associates Zoroaster with the ancient city of Shīz or
Ganzaka (Greek: Γάζακα), capital of Atropatene. Rawlinson and Minorsky
identify Shīz with modern Takht-e Soleiman in Azerbaijan (Iran), where are the
ruins of Ādur Gušnasp fire (now Azargoshnasp), one of the three Great Fires of
ancient Iran.
Thus, the Sasanians granted the rank of “cathedral” to the Ādur Gušnasp
fire. Sasanian King Šāpūr I's supreme Magi Kardīr (mobedān mobed, priest of priests) was
affiliated with the fire-temple of Ādur Gušnasp. Later, during the reign of King Šāpūr II, the powerful mobedān mobed Ādurbād-ī
Mahrspandān (“Ādurbād, son of Mahraspand”) was
also affiliated with Ādur Gušnasp fire.
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| Fig 2. Mt Savalan/ Sebīlān, Ardabil county, Azerbaijan, Iran |
Next,
the passage from Kazwini (quoted from Rawlinson) reads: "In Shiz is the
fire- temple of Azerekhsh [Pahlavi: Ādur Gušnasp/ Ādhar Gušnasp], the
most celebrated of the Pyraea of the Magi; in the days of the fire-worship, the
kings always came on foot, upon pilgrimage. The temple of Azerekhsh is ascribed
to Zeratusht, the founder of the Magian religion, who went, it is said, from
Shiz to the mountain of Sebīlān and, after remaining there some time in
retirement, returned with the Zend-Avesta, which, although written in the old
Persian language, could not be understood without a commentary. After this, he
declared himself to be a prophet."
According to Williams Jackson,
speaking on Shīz in Ādarbaijān, Kazwini continued: "Zarādusht, the prophet
of the Magians, takes his origin from here (i.e., Ādarbaijān). It is said that
he came from Shīz. He went to the mountain Sabalān, separated from men."
Indeed, there is some evidence
indicating that Zoroaster began to preach on the Mt. Sabalan/ Savalan (Pahlavi:
Sebīlān, 4811 m). The mount is in the modern Ardabil county of
Azerbaijan in Iran. The people of Azerbaijan also call Mt. Soltan Savalan,
describing it as a holy mountain.
Remarkably,
Jackson indicates that the Avesta mentions a hill by the river Darja where
Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazdā. He argues that the hill (zbarah) or
mountain (gairi) is Mount Sebīlān. According to him, the Avesta's Darja
River is possibly the modern Darya (?), which flows from Mt. Sebīlān into the
Aras river (Araxes).
Interestingly,
the Avesta mentions 16 perfect lands (asah) and countries (šōiθra),
which Ahura Mazdā created for His people. Avestan Geography identifies Avesta's
Iran Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah, Pahlavi: Ērān-wēz, “the area
of the Aryans”) with Atropatene [Azerbaijan].
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| Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as it described in Vendidāt (Fargard 1) |
Indeed,
Jackson writes that the Bundahish directly connects Iran Vej (the holy land of
Zoroastrianism where Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was born and founded his religion
there) with Atropatene [1]: "Aīrān Vej pavan kōst-ī Ātūr-pātakān" [Azerbaijan].
However,
James Darmesteter (a first translator of the Zend-Avesta [2]) identifies the
province Airyanem Vaeja (Iran Vej), or Eranwej, with Arran (nowadays known as
Karabagh, present-day Azerbaijan).
Darmesteter translates the passage from Avesta Vendidāt/Vidēvdād (Fargard 1) as follows: “Ahura Mazda spake Zarathushtra, saying: The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyana Vaeja, by the Vanguhi Daitya.” He comments that the river Vanguhi Daitya (Avestan: Vaŋuhī Dāityā “the good Dāityā”) belongs to Arran, and it should be the Aras (Araxes) river.
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| Fig 4. Zoroastrians (local and Iranian) pray in Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
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| Fig 5. Ateshgah Fire Temple, Baku, Azerbaijan |
Truly,
the region of Arran (Pahlavi: Ārān), also known as Caucasian Albania, is
the present-day Azerbaijan. The Pahlavi and Sasanian books introduced Airyanem
Vaeja around Azerbaijan. Historians like James Darmesteter and Ernst Herzfeld
believed that Airyanem Vaeja's location is Azerbaijan and around the Caucasus.
In
the meantime, the Bundahish indicates that the river Darja/ Darej, near which
stood the house of Zoroaster's father, had been in Iran Vej. In this regard,
Jackson notes that the Bundahish likewise alludes to Zoroaster's first offering
worship in Iran Vej. He provides Darmesteter's translation of the passage from
the Avesta: "Zoroaster communed with Ahura Mazda on the high bank of the
Darej, sitting (?) before the good Ahura Mazda... ."
Next,
Jackson states that "With regard to localizations, there is good ground
for believing that Airan Vej (Avestan: Ayriianəm Vaēǰah) is to be
identified in part at least with Ādarbaijān, and that the ancient river Darej
of the Avesta is identical with the modern Daryai. The Daryai Rūd (river) flows
from Mt. Savalān (Sebīlān), in Ādarbaijān, northward into the Aras River
(Araxes)."
Intriguingly,
Jackson provides importantly interesting details on Zoroaster's native place
and his parents: "Oriental tradition seems to be fairly correct in
assigning, as his native land, the district of Atropatene or Ādarbaijān, to the
west of Media, or even more precisely the neighborhood about Lake Urumiah.
There is ground, furthermore, for believing in the tradition which says that
his father was a native of Ādarbaijān, - a region of naphtha wells and oil
fountains, - and that Zoroaster's mother was from the Median city of Ragha
(Rai)."
He
continues: "In the latter region probably Zoroaster was born and seems to
have spent there the first part of his life, probably by the river Darja. It
was there his religious meditations began. That account for his name being
associated with all this territory Urmiah, Shīz, Mount Sebīlān."
Finally,
Jackson concludes: "There is a great reason to believe that if, as seems
most likely, Zoroaster was born in Atropatene, he was drawn toward the
important city of Ragha, somewhat perhaps as Christ went to Jerusalem."
In
sum, Azerbaijan's Mount Savalan is one of the sacred places in Zoroastrianism
where, according to some significant sources, Prophet Zoroaster received a
divine revelation. The mount may be the Avestan "Mount of the Holy
Communicants." Nietzsche mentions that Prophet Zoroaster ascended Mount
Savalan.
Later, in the Sasanian period, Ādurbādagān [Azerbaijan] became a center of Zoroastrian propaganda and religious "core" of the empire, projecting its influence, name and military functions on Arran (Caucasian Albania, present-day Azerbaijan) up to the Darband fortress on the Caspian shores.
* Khalifa-zadeh M., Research
Professor, Ph.D, Canadian Historical Association, Ottawa, Canada
Notice
[1] Atropatene perhaps was a place were legendary hero Feridun (Avestan: Θraētaona, Pahlavi: Frēdōn) was born and ruled up to 500 years.
[2] The oldest part of Avesta (Gathas or "Songs") roots deep to the time of Medes (Medians) and reflects the form of the Median religion.
References:
A.V.
Williams Jackson, "Zoroaster the Prophet of Ancient Iran", London
1899, 352, available at: https://archive.org/details/cu31924022982502/page/n5/mode/2up
A.V.Williams
Jackson, "Where Was Zoroaster's Native Place?", Journal of the
American Oriental Society, Vol 15, 1893, pp. 221-232, available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/592356
Friedrich
Nietzsche, "Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One",
Penguin Classics, 1961, 352.
“Vendidad
(Vidēvdād) or Laws against the Demons, Avesta - The Sacred Books of
Zoroastrianism, Book 3”, translated by James Darmesteter (From Sacred Books of
the East), edited by Joseph H. Peterson, American Edition, 1898, 192,
Avesta.org publishing 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd_eng.pdf
“AVESTA:
VENDIDAD (English): Fargard 1”, digital edition, prepared by Joseph H.
Peterson, 1995, available at: https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd1sbe.htm
Roots
Hount, "Avestan Geography", available at: https://rootshunt.com/angirasgautam/sumeriancivilizationinfulenceonhinduism/assyria/whowereasurs/avestangeography/avestangeography.htm
Gherardo Gnoli
G., "Avestan Geography," Encyclopedia Iranica, 2011, Vol. III, Fasc. 1, pp.
44-47, available at: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avestan-geography
Mary
Boyce, "Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices",
Routledge, 1979, 252.
Oktor
Skjaervø, The Avesta as source for the early history of the Iranians, In:
"The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia", De Gruyter Brill,
Berlin/Munich/Boston, 1995, 155-176.
Igor
Dyakonoff, “History of Media from the earliest times until the end of the 4th
century BCE”; (Istoria Midii ot drevneyshikh vremen do kontsa IV v. do n.e).,
Moscow and Leningrad, 1956.
George Rawlinson, "Ancient Media, Political and Cultural History of the Median Tribes", e-artnow, 2018, 90.
Vedveer Aya, Indo-Iranian Roots in the South Caucasus, available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus
Mahir Khalifa-zadeh, Sasanian Imperial Ideology: From Anāhītā Fire In Pārs
To Ādur Gušnasp Fire Temple In Ādurbādagān, International Journal of History, 2025,
Vol 7, Issue 1, pp 23-28, DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/27069109.2025.v7.i1a.344
A.F.J. REMY Catholic Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia
Avesta, Sacred books of the Parsees, or Zoroastrians, available at: https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/avesta
Figures:
Fig1.
3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria,
available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster#/media/File:CIMRM_44-Mithraic_pater_(Dura_Europos)_B.jpg
Fig
2., Mt Sabalan, Ardabil county,
Azerbaijan, Iran, available at: https://www.irantourtravel.com/2017/12/the-dove-white-sabalan-mountain-soared.html
Fig 3. Map of the sacred lands created by Ahura Mazda for His people as described in Vendidat (Fargard 1), available at: https://www.academia.edu/164896035/Indo_Iranian_Roots_in_South_Caucasus
Fig 4. Zoroastrians pray in Ateshgah, Baku, Azerbaijan, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Azerbaijan
Fig 5. “ATESHGAH TEMPLE” STATE HISTORICAL-ARCHITECTURAL
RESERVE", Surakhani, Baku, Azerbaijan available at: https://ateshgahtemple.az/en/
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