Mahir Khalifa-Zadeh1,2 and Leyla Khalifazadeh3
1Canadian Political Science Association, Toronto, Canada.
2Azerbaijan in Global Context, Media and Analysis Centre,
Toronto, Canada.
3Don Mills Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
ORIGINAL SOURCE:
Khalifa-Zadeh M., Khalifazadeh L., "Sasanian Adurbadagan and Modern Azerbaijan:
Historical Roots and Development", 2023, Advances in Historical Studies, Vol.12, No 2, pp 63-75 California, USA DOI: 10.4236/ahs.2023.122005
https://www.academia.edu/103821642/Sasanian_Adurbadagan_and_Modern_Azerbaijan_Historical_Roots_and_Development
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| Sassanids' Adurbadagan shahr |
Abstract: The article analyzes
application of the name Adurbadagan to both sides of modern Azerbaijan divided
by the Araz river into southern or Iranian and northern or the independent
Republic of Azerbaijan. The authors believe that name Azerbaijan roots to the
Avestan words Azar or Atash. As a historical and political term, Azerbaijan
originates from Achaemenids’ Aturpatakan (Atropatena) evolving into the
Sassanian Adurbadagan—a Zoroastrian center of the empire. Since late Antiquity,
Adurbadagan’s military and administrative functions were extended and applied
by the Sassanids to all lands in the north from the Aras River, up to Darband
fortress in the Caucasus. In the Islamic period, Adurbadagan evolved into
Turkified form of Azarbadajan or Azerbaijan, cementing the modern Azerbaijani
Turks’ identity in the south and north sides of the entire Azerbaijan divided
by the Araxes.
Keywords: Sasanian, Khosrow, Aturpatakan,
Adurbadagan, Arran, Caucasus Albania, Azerbaijan, Caucasus
Share and Cite: Khalifa-Zadeh, M. and Khalifazadeh,
L. (2023) Sasanian Adurbadagan and Modern Azerbaijan: Historical Roots and
Development. Advances in Historical Studies, vol 12, pp 63-75. DOI: 10.4236/ahs.2023.122005
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| Sasanian Adurbadagan and Arran shahr (Caucasus Albania) |
1. Introduction
Couple hypotheses exist regarding the origins of the name
Azerbaijan. According to the classic tradition, the name comes from the time of
Alexander of Macedon’s conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. In particular, it
presumably originates from general Aturpat—a commander of the Persian King
Darius III’s army’s left wing in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC (Chaumont, 1987) .
2. Aturpat (Atropates)
Aturpat (Middle Persian/Pahlavi) or Atropates (in Greek)
was King Darius III’s general and satrap of Media. He commanded Median,
Arranian (Albanian), Iberian, Sacasenian troops in the Battle of Gaugamela. In
the battle, the Macedonian troops, facing Atropates, were forced to retreat.
Only Alexander’s personal intervention with fresh troops allowed the
Macedonians to stop their retreat and concentrate on a victorious advance in
the center, facing troops under direct the command of Darius III. It was a
unique moment in the battle. The Macedonian right wing had begun to retreat
and, if King Darius III realized and utilized it, the battle’s outcome would
have been completely different. However, as is well-known, Darius III’s poor
commanding and leadership skills resulted in the catastrophic defeat of the
Achaemenids Army (Shifman, 1988) .
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| Aturpat (Atropates) meets Alexander of Macedon, painting, National Museum, Baku, Azerbaijan |
One month after Darius III’s death in June 330 B.C.,
Atropates surrendered to Alexander. Later, in a personal meeting, Alexander
mentioned Atropate’s military skills and esteemed him so high that Atropates’
daughter was married to Perdiccas—a close ally to Alexander and commander of
the Macedonian cavalry. The marriage took place at the famous mass wedding in
Susa in February 324 BC. Moreover, Atropates also offered 100 Amazons, as
Greeks called beautiful female-archers from Media and Albania, for Alexander’s
military elite massive wedding in Susa (Mayor, 2017) . Moreover, Atropates also
offered 100 Amazons, as Greeks called beautiful female-archers from Media and Albania,
for Alexander’s military elite massive wedding in Susa.
In 324 B.C. Atropates pacified unrest against the Greeks,
and Alexander decided to keep Atropates as a King of the land which later
became the independent Kingdom of Atropatena (in Greek) or Aturpatakan (in
Parthian or Arsakid Pahlavi). Thus, as we believe, Aturpat (Atropates) occupies
a significant place in the history of Azerbaijan. His name, possibly, is the
key to understand the origin of the name Azerbaijan—a land of fire.
Indeed, Aturpat, a nobleman and general, was a follower of
Zarathustra (Zoroaster). The name Aturpat comes from Avesta’s word “Atare-pata”. The
word “Atur” is derived from the Avestan “Atar” or “Atash”
or “Azar” that means fire. “Pat” may be derived from the Avestan
“payu” meaning “guardian” or “protector”. The
transcription of name Aturpat from Middle Persian (Pahlavi) could be “protected
by fire” (Khalifa-Zadeh, 2017).
3. Aturpatakan (Atropatena)
After Alexander’s death in June 323 B.C., Atropates secured
his rule in a part of Media, known as Atropatena or Lesser Media, which was
mostly settled by the Medes, a founding Iranian tribe of the Median Empire,
preceding the Achaemenids.
Atropatena is Aturpatan in Old Persian. During the
subsequent Parthian era the Old Persian name Aturpatan evolved to the Middle
Persian Aturpatakan. In Old and Middle Persian (Pahlavi), “Atur”, as
mentioned early, means fire. The Encyclopedia Iranica describes Aturpatakan as
“a place where the holy fire is protected”.
Indeed, Aturpatakan was the only place in Ancient Iran
where Zoroastrianism was never challenged by other religions, particularly the
Greek pantheon. Moreover, it is highly likely that Aturpatakan was the place
where the prophet Zarathustra was born and the Holy Avesta was kept in the
sacred fire Adur Gushnasp temple (now Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian
Azerbaijan) (Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2007) .
Under the Seleucids, Atropates, as King of Atropatena,
tried to minimize the impact of the Hellenistic religion on Zoroastrianism. He
enjoyed full support from the Zoroastrian clergy—Magi and priests. The
Atropatena’s capital was Ganzak, a cultural and logistical hub. It was a
fortress and stronghold of Zoroastrianism. The Encyclopedia Iranica mentions:
“It was presumably the capital of Atropates and his descendants, under whom, it
seems, the chief Median sacred fire Ādur Gušnasp was established on a hill
nearby. Later developments show that the fire became closely associated with
both Ganzak and Lake Urmia.” (Boyce, 2012) .
Aturpatakan or Atropatena was an independent or
semi-independent (vassal of Arsakid Parthia) kingdom until the 3 CE. Atropatena
and Parthia considered Rome a great threat and allied themselves in a
long-lasting war with the Romans. Later, Atropatena was absorbed by the
Sasanian Empire and Aturpatakan evolved to Adurbadagan (in Pahlavi).
4. Adurbadagan/Adarbadagan
As the result of the transition from Old Persian to Middle
Persian (Pahlavi), the word “Atur” or “Atar” evolved to “Adur” or “Adar”, and
so Aturpatakan has been named Adurbadagan or Adarbadagan by the Sasanians.
In the Seleucid and Parthian eras, Aturpatakan (Adurbadagan)
played a central role as a stronghold against the Greek and Roman pantheons,
respectively, to preserve and expand Zoroaster’s faith. In the Sasanian era,
Adurbadagan became the religious center of the empire. The chief Median sacred
fire temple of Atur or Adur Gushnasp (Pahlavi) was established sometime in the
Parthian period on a hill near Aturpatakan’s capital Ganzak.
The Sasanians proclaimed Zoroaster’s faith as an imperial
religion and Adurbadagan occupied the role of the empire’s religious core, holding
the temple Adur Gushnasp as the imperial sacred fire of the highest grade. The
Byzantines as well acknowledged the imperial and religious value of Adurbadagan
holding fire Adur Gushnasp. During the Byzantine-Sassanian War of 602-628 CE,
the Byzantian emperor Heraclius, in 623 CE, occupied Adurbadagan and sacked out
fire Adur Gushnasp, aiming to crash the Sassanian will and power to
fight. (Maksymiuk, 2017)
Adur Gushnasp—an Atash Bahram (Parthian:
Ataxsh-i-Wahram (Yamamoto, 1979) or Pahlavi: Adur
Wahram—“fires of Victory”, Zoroastrian name of God of War and Victory) was the
Zoroastrian most sacred or “cathedral” fire of the highest grade established in
the late Achaemenid or Parthian era in Adurbadagan. The temple was linked to the
warrior class (Pahlavi: arteshtar) to which the Sasanian dynasty belonged
itself. Since King Bahram V (420-438 CE), the Sasanian kings after coronation
pilgrimage to the temple providing royal gifts and celebrate Nowruz (Pahlavi:
No Ruz). Adur Gushnasp continued to burn down up to 11th century (Boyce, 2014) .
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| Ruins of Sassanids' most sacred fire temple Adur Gushnasp (now Azargushnasp), Takht-e Suleyman,, Iranian Azerbaijan |
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During the late Sasanian period, the Sasanian King Kawad I
(488-96, 499-531) and Khosrow I Anushirvan (531-579) conducted military and
administrative reforms to establish a quadripartition of the empire. The reform
was aimed improving the empire’s military and defense capabilities to lead a
long-lasting permanent war with Byzantium, as well as to address direct threats
from Turks and Khazars in Caucasia. The reform was designed to strengthen the
empire’s defense following the establishment of four quarters or sides
(Pahlavi: kust) reported to the assigned trustworthy general (Pahlavi: spahbed)
for each quarter (Farrokh, 2021; Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2010 ).King Khosrow I Anushirvan abolished the one-person command
of Eranspahbed (Pahlavi: Isbahbadh al-bilad, Artestaran salar, the office of
the marshal or general of all Iranian forces) (Maksymiuk, 2015) and replaced it with
four generals (spahbed) reporting directly to the Shahanshah (king of kings).
As a result of the reform, kust-i Adurbadagan (quadrant or side of Adurbadagan)
was established holding Adurbadagan spahbed (general) and Adurbadagan amargar
(financial or administrative officer) as well. The office of supreme military
command (Isbahbadh) of Azerbaijan, with specially assigned Adurbadagan general
(spahbed), was covered Adurbadagan, Armin (Armenia) and Arran (Caucasus
Albania) (Maksymiuk, 2015; Farrokh, 2021; Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2011; Gylesen, 2001; Kasumova, 1988) (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Figure 1. The Sasanian Military Commander seal: Gorgon i Mehran…ud
hujadag Xusro wuzurg eran— kust-i Adurbadagan spahbed, (Maksymiuk, 2015). The seal was found in Azargushnasp (Pahlavi: Adur Gusnasp), Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian Azerbaijan); (M. Khalifa-zadeh translation: Gorgon, Khusraw Iran's Great House of Mihran - region Adurbadagan's [Azerbaijan] general),
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Figure
2. The Sasanian Military Commander seal: Sed-hos i Mehran shahr asbed ud hujadag Xusro
wuzurg eran— kust-i Adurbadagan's spahbed, (Maksymiuk, 2015). The seal was found in Azargushnasp (Pahlavi: Adur Gusnasp), Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian Azerbaijan. (M.Khalifa-zadeh translation: Sedhos, Khusraw Iran's Great House of Mehran's country army commander - region Adurbadagan's [Azerbaijan] general)
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Figure 3. Arran (Albania) Darband fortress' wall
Pahlavi inscription. It transcribes as, “ēn ud az ēn ābarbar Daryuš ī
Ādurbādagān āmārgar”, and translates as This and higher than this made by
Dariush, revenue/tax collector of Adurbadagan (Azerbaijan) (Kasumova, 1988; Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006).
Figure 4. The Darband wall Pahlavi “ēn ud az ēn ābarbar Daryuš ī Ādurbādagān āmārgar” inscription drawing (Kasumova, 1988; Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006) .
The establishment of kust-i Adurbadagan with specially
assigned general was designed to improve the empire’s military and defense
capabilities and to strengthen the central power of the Shahanshah. Moreover,
as we believe, the reform aimed to strengthen Zoroastrianism in lands bordering
the Christian Orthodox Byzantium and Turks in the Caucasus. The Sassanids
considered kust-i Adurbadagan the most important quadrant because of its
military potential and geographical location. The kust included the province of
Adurbadagan (a religious center of the empire) and all adjoining lands in the
north and west from the Araz River up to the Khazar lands in the Caspian Sea.
The establishment of kust-i Adurbadagan allowed to redesign
the Sassanian military architecture in this part of the empire, projecting
Adurbadagan’s structures and functions to the north over the Araz river up to
Caucasia’s Darband fortress as Adurbadagan shahr (country, in Pahlavi) (Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006) .
The Sasanian reform strategy was pragmatic and effective.
It strengthened the empire’s defense and military capabilities by incorporating
Arranian (Albanian) troops into the Sasanian Imperial army under the
Adurbadagan spahbed’s (general) command. However, the establishment of kust
Adurbadagan had a clear religious function, as mentioned, because the province
Adurbadagan, holding the most sacred fire Adur Gushnasp, was the imperial
center of Zoroastrianism. Thus, projecting Adurbadagan’s military and administrative
functions to the north of the Araz River (Araxes) was of paramount significance
to the Sassanids enforcing both the central Shahanshah’s power and the
Zoroastrian faith in Arran (Albania) which was challenged by the Orthodox
Byzantium (Caucasus Albania was baptized into Nestorian Orthodox Christianity
at the beginning of the 7th CE) (Rapp Jr., 2012) . It increased Zoroastrian
gravity and the importance of Adurbadagan as an imperial religious center,
cementing the Sasanian power and Zoroastrianism (as the unique imperial
religion) under Adurbadagan shahr umbrella in the geographical region where the
military and religious rivalling with the Orthodox Byzantium was in the stages
of war (Rapp Jr., 2012) .
The establishment of Adurbadagan’s command (Isbahbadh) (Maksymiuk, 2015) under a specially
assigned general (spahbed) centralized and expanded military operations up to
the Darband fortress on the frontier with the Turks and Khazars in Caucasia.
Despite Darband, at the time, was within the semi-independent Arran state
(Pahlavi: Arranshahr), the Sasanians maintained military garrisons under the
direct supervision of Adurbadagan’s spahbed. They strongly believed that
Arraninan (Albanian) forces alone were not enough to stop the Turks from
penetrating the Darband passage deep into Iran (Pahlavi: Eranshahr) (Farrokh et al., 2018; Farrokh et al., 2019) .
The Sassanian Kings (Shahanshah) and Kings of Arran
(Arranshah) improved Darband’s fortifications by constructing double walls and
the Narin Gala citadel on the hill. The fortified defense line was erected to
protect a narrow passage between the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea,
blocking the invasion of Turks and Khazars.
It is noteworthy that Azerbaijani and Dagestani scholars
translated many Pahlavi inscriptions on the Darband walls. One of the
inscriptions confirms the Darband’s subordination to Adurbadagan’s tax or
revenue officer (Pahlavi: amargar). The Pahlavi wall inscription “en ud az en
abarbar Darius-i Adurbadagan amargar” was translated as: “This and higher than
this made by Dariush, Adurbadagan’s revenue/tax collector” (Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006) (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
The Pahlavi writings on the Darband wall and the Sasanian
garrisons’ location (Gadjiyev, 2003) in Arran’s (Albanian)
fortresses of Darband, Torpakh kala (Sahrestan Yazdegerd), Beshbarmag and in
the Gilgilchay Defense Wall under the Adurbadagan’s general (spahbed) command
as well as kust-i Adurbadagan marzban (administrative office) location in the
Adurbadagan province’s city of Ardebil clearly confirm the projection of
Adurbadagan’s political, military and administrative functions to the north from
the Araxes. Later, historical developments indicate that Arran and Adurbadagan
became interchangeable names in the region (Bosworth, n.d.; ARRAN, n.d.) .
It is not surprising that Adurbadagan’s name and functions
were projected onto Arran (Albania). The local Arranian (Albanian) nobility was
close to the Sasanian crown and Arranian (Albanian) troops were integrated into
the Sasanian army under command of Adurbadagan spahbed. Thus, despite that the
Caucasus Albania (Arran) was an independent (from time to time) or
semi-independent state, however, the defense was under Adurbadagan spahbed
command who was at the time famous Iranian military and political hero—spahbed
Rostam Farrokhzad of Adurbadagan. General and Prince of Adurbadagan Rostam
Farrokhzad was a member of the Pahlav clan of Ispahbudhan family (House)—one of
the Seven Great (Pahlavi: wuzurgan) House of the Sasanian Empire claiming its
descent to the Arsacids of Parthia (Maksymiuk, 2015) .
At the same time, the King of Arran (Varaz Grigor
(628-637), Zoroastrian name that may have been Gadvsnasp prior to his second
baptizing into dyophysite (Chalcedonian doctrine) (Toumanoff, 1961) Orthodox Nestorian
Christianity, was adopted as the title of Arranshah. He was a member of the
wuzurgan Mihran family (a Pahlav noble-family, separated or branch of the
Ispahbudhan House). Moreover, Arranshah Varaz Grigor was related to the
Sasanian Shahanshah Khosrow I Anushirvan or even “being himself a noble of the
family of Ardashir I” and Prince Javanshir (Pahlavi: Juansher) of the Caucasus
Albania (Arran) was a son of Varaz Grigor. The Pahlav House of Mihran held high
ranking positions in the Sasanian hierarchy and occupied high command over
frontline in the north, leading the negotiations with the Khaqan of Turks (Maksymiuk, 2015) .
Notably, the famous Sasanian general Rostam Farrokhzad of
Adurbadagan escorted and introduced Prince Javanshir to the last Sasanian King
Yazdegird III (632-651) in Ctesiphon, the Sasanian capital. Prince Javanshir
has occupied a significant place in the history of Azerbaijan and Iran.
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| Javanshir, Prince and General (Spahbed) of Arran, Museum of History, Baku, Azerbaijan |
On November 636, in the famous Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
between the Sasanians and Muslim Arabs, Prince Javanshir was the commander of
the Arranian (Albanian) troops, which were part of the Imperial Army under the
command of spahbed Rostam Farrokhzad of Adurbadagan.
In 637, Javanshir with 3000 - 4000 troops (Hoyland, 2020) , helped arrange King
Yazdegird III’s evacuation from the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon sieged by the
Muslims. Later, Yazdegerd III awarded Javanshir two golden spears and shields
and acknowledged his bravery, awarding a flag—the Standard of Jamshid (Pahlavi:
Derafsh-e Kavian) which was the highest honor for loyalty and bravery in the
figh with the Muslim Arabs. Before the final defeat of the Sassanian army at
the Battle of Nahavand in 642, Javanshir arrived in Adurbadagan. One can
assume, that he planned to resume command of the Sassanian Adurbadagan military
in the wake of the death of Rostam, and because of Yazdegerd’s strong will to
collect a new army in Media to fight the Arabs. However, Rostam’s brother
Farrukhzad was assigned as the Adurbadagan spahbed and Javanshir fled back to
the Albanian capital Partaw (now Barda, present-day Azerbaijan).
5. Azarbaijan/Azerbaijan
Since the Muslim conquest of Iran following the
disintegration of the Sasanian empire and Caucasus Albania, Muslim Arabs have
followed the Sassanian tradition applying Adurbadagan as shahr to both south
and north banks of the Araz river (Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2010) . The Muslims
followed the Sasanian military command structure and Sasanian fortifications’
infrastructure designed to protect the Araxes’s northern lands keeping a
garrison in Caucasia’s Darband. In the meantime, since the Muslim conquest of
Iran, the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) experienced great Arabic influence, and many
Pahlavi words evolved into new form of writing and reading. In fact,
Adurbadagan shahr transformed into Azarbadajan (Arabic pronunciation), and
finally, thanks to the Turkification that followed, evolved into Azarbaijan or
Azerbaijan (in Azerbaijani Turkish).
Since the Sasanian era, the central and northern and
northwestern parts of Iran particularly Adurbadagan, Arran, and Armin
(Arminiyaya or Armenia), experienced a high degree of Turkification (Aray, 2010) . The first Oghuz Turkic
tribes (Afshars) began penetrating Iran as early as the 5th CE. The local
population of Sassanian Adurbadagan shahr (province and kust) was involved into
the permanent and long-lasting (5th-11th centuries) process of Turkification
following the gradual transition from the Adari Iranian language to Azeri
Turkic or Azerbaijani Turkish. Simultaneously, entire Adurbadagan region
experienced of the settlement of Turkic tribes fueling the partial or full
absorption of the local population by the Turks.
The Seljuk Turk’s conquering of Iran in the 11th
century (Peacock, 2000) became a dominant force
creating the ethnic and cultural foundation of contemporary Azerbaijani Turks
or Azerbaijanis identity on both sides of the Araxes. The Seljuk Turk’s massive
influx and conquering accelerated local Adari language degradation (Kasravi, 1993) and its gradual
replacement by Azeri or Azeri Turkish. This process created a common political,
religious, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic space, or the sole identity of
Azerbaijani Turks on both sides of the Araxes (Alstadt, 1992) .
The conquering of the Seljuk Turks and the subsequent
Turkification fundamentally changed the ethnic composition of Iran. It created
a new political balance within Iran, resulting in the origin of the entire
Azerbaijan and later Azerbaijani Turks’ identity on both banks of the Araxes,
and shifted the nature of Iran into Muslim Shi’a power under the Turkic
dynasties’ rule.
Notably, after the defeat of Jahan Shah (Sultan of
Azerbaijan, Emperor of Persia, son of Sultan of Azerbaijan Yusef Kara of Kara
Koyunly, a leader of the Kara Koyunlu Turkic dynasty in Azerbaijan and
Arran) (Uzun Ḥasan & Turkmen Ruler, n.d.) by
Uzun Hasan , the 9th Shahanshah of the Turkic Ak Koyunlu dynasty, in the Battle
of Chapakchur (November 11, 1467), the name Arran was totally abolished (Bosworth, n.d.) as a political term.
Uzun Hasan (1453-1478) proclaimed Azerbaijan’s Tabriz as the capital of the
Turkic Ak Koyunlu Empire and translated the Quran into Turkic.
Next, with the rise of the Safavid Turkic dynasty in Iran,
the forces of Shah Ismail I Safavid (1487-1524, maternal grandson of Uzun Hasan
of Ak Koyunlu) defeated and killed Shirvanshah Farruh Yassar of Shirvan
(Persianized dynasty) in the Battle of Jabani in 1500. The Shirvanshah Yassar’s
defeat accelerated the disintegration of the state of Shirvanshahs on the
northern side of the Araxes, following its absorption by the Safavid Empire in
1538. The disintegration of Shirvanshahs terminated Shirvans’ political
functioning, cementing entire Azerbaijan under the Safavids. However, Shirvan
and Arran, as geographical terms, have survived until today. The Turkic
Safavids proclaimed Azerbaijan’s Tabriz as the capital of the empire. The
Safavids, following the Sasanian tradition, valued both parts of Turkic
speaking Azerbaijan (Adurbadagan) as the core of the empire.
The Savafids appointed Beglarbegis in the following major
provinces: Isfahan, Azerbaijan, Qaradag and Qarabaq. The administrative reform
in the Safavid period confirmed the final political abolishment of the Arran
(Caucasus Albania) and Shirvan (state of Shirvanshahs) to the north of the
Araxes as independent or semi-independent entities, securing them as
geographical and historical toponomies till modern time.
Undoubtedly, the Seljuk and later Safavid eras facilitated
the sailing of the northern part of Iran as Azerbaijan to the 18th century Iran
of Qajars, which was the Iranian royal dynasty of Turkic origin from
present-day Azerbaijan. However, several defeats of Qajar Iran by the Russian
empire, following the early 19th century Russo-Persian wars, pushed them to
sign the painful Treaties of Golestan (1813) and Turkmanchay (1828). Both
treaties forced Iran to cede the Qajar’s Caucasian or Azerbaijani khanates
including the Iravan khanate (present-day Armenia), to Imperial Russia (Zardabli, 2014; Ismailov, 2017) .
6. Modern Azerbaijan: South (Iranian) Azerbaijan and North
(Independent Republic of) Azerbaijan
Many the Imperial Russia’s official documents indicate the
newly gained territories from Qajar Iran as Aderbeijani (Azerbaijani) khanates.
On September 4, 1795, Russia’s Empress Catherin the Great wrote to General
Gudovich: [we] “…have cordially to invite officers of Aga Mohammad Shah [Qajar]
and, if he wants to be acknowledged as a Shah, he must stop his [military] operations
in the region close to the Caspian Sea and named as the khanates of Darband,
Baku, Talish, Shusha and others locating in Aderbeijan [present-day
Azerbaijan]” (Dubrovin, 1871) .
On January 8, 1804, following the capture of Ganja fortress
(present-day Azerbaijan), the Commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in
Caucasia, General Titsianov, wrote to Russia’s Caucasian Governor Kasparov:
“Thanks to the location of Ganja fortress, which keeps the whole Aderbeijan
[Azerbaijan] in fear, it is the most important purchase for Russia; and I would
like to update you on this event recommending you to inform about this great
victory in all places of the gubernia [region] which is under your
control” (Gezalov, n.d.) .
Next, British Imperial cables from Persia confirmed that
the ceded Caucasian khanates were Azerbaijan. On June 27, 1864, British Keith
E. Abbot, H.M. Consul-General in Tabriz (Iranian Azerbaijan), sent a cable to
the Foreign Office stating the following: “The country which is known to the
Persians as Azerbaijan is divided between them and Russia… This area includes
the following territorials: …Mohammedian countries of Erivan, Nakhchevan,
Karabagh, Ghenja, Shirwan, Sheky, Shamachy, Bakou, Koobeh, Salian and a portion
of Talish” (present-day Azerbaijan). In the same cable he also states the
following: “The population of Russian Azerbaijan consists of mixed races,
Mohhammedan and Christians, amounting probably to 700,000 to 800,000 souls.
Persian Azerbaijan extends southward to the range of mountains known as the
Kaflan Kooh. The country included in these boundaries, and perhaps, a large
part, if not all, of Russian Azerbaijan, is generally recognized as the Media
Atropatena of ancient geography” (Abbott, 1863-1864) .
Moreover, Imperial Russia referred to the local population
on both sides of the Araz River Aderbeijanskiye (Azerbaijani) Tatari (Tatars of
Aderbeijan or Azerbaijan) because they spoke, as Russians believed, in the same
or similar language as Russia’s Tatars in Kazan (Velichko, 1904) .
As a result of the above-mentioned historical developments,
the phenomenon of two Azerbaijans—South (Iranian) Azerbaijan and North
(Russian) Azerbaijan emerged, creating a new geopolitical landscape in Caucasia
and on both banks of the Araxes in the beginning of the 19th century.
After the Russian Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the
national Musavat government in Ganja proclaimed independence of the northern
Azerbaijan from Imperial Russia on May 28, 1918. Thus, the Azerbaijan
Democratic Republic (ADR) emerged as the first Western-style state in the
Muslim world. The ADR political system was based on Western secular values
established the National Parliament (Milli Majlis), granting the equal voting
rights to women as well as switching from Arabic to the Latin alphabet.
Finally, as a result of the Soviet collapse in 1991,
northern or Soviet (Russian) Azerbaijan proclaimed its return to independence
as the Republic of Azerbaijan—a political and historical descent of the ADR of
1918. On December 25, 1991, Iran recognized the independence of the Republic of
Azerbaijan.
7. Conclusion
As we have seen, the name Azerbaijan is deeply rooted in
the Achaemenids era and possibly originates from Avestan Adur or Atash. In the
Sassanids period, Azerbaijan (Adurbadagan, in Pahlavi) became the principal
Zoroastrian center of the empire, housing the sacred cathedral fire of Adur
Gushnasp.
In the 5th-6th century, the Sassanids implemented reforms
designed to strengthen the empire’s structure and military capabilities during
the war with the Byzantines and Turks. They pushed forward the gravity of
Adurbadagan, the empire’s Zoroastrian core, into the defense and consolidation
of the Sasanian power in military and politically sensitive Caucasia to address
direct threats from the Byzantium, Khazars and Turks.
The Sassanids reorganized the empire’s architecture,
expanding Adurbadagan’s military and administrative functions to Darband in
Caucasia as under the Adurbadagan shahr or kust umbrella. The newly discovered
Sasanian (kust-i Adurbadagan spahbed) military seals in Takht-e Soleyman
(Iranian Azerbaijan) and Pahlavi writings on Caucasia’s Derbent walls confirm
that Arran and Adurbadagan were interchangeable names on the north bank of the
Araxes since late Antiquity.
After the disintegration of the Arranshahr (Caucasus
Albania) and Shirvanshahs, paralleling the large-scale Turkification process in
the central and northern parts of the Oghuz Turk dynasties’ Iran, the entities
like Arran and Shirvan lost their political essence and were replaced by
Azerbaijan, the Turkified form of Adurbadagan. However, the historical and
geographical functioning of Arran and Shirvan has survived until modern times.
Historically, as we have seen, the names Arran and Azerbaijan
were interchangeably used to refer to the northern bank of the Araxes. Thus,
Azerbaijan applied for the larger area combining both south and north sides of
the Araxes. The term Arran, however, was used for a narrower area implying not
for the whole territory of the Araxes’ north bank.
Finally, the Turkification process gave birth to the
Azerbaijani Turks identity, holding the Azerbaijani Turkish language as a key
element as well as cementing the whole of Azerbaijan on both sides of the Araz
river. The population on the river’s both banks became the same ethnic group
sharing the common language and religion. However, the historical and
geographical partitioning of Azerbaijan by the Araxes into southern and
northern parts culminated in the present-day geopolitical reality of modern
Azerbaijan, representing the combination of Southern (or Iranian) Azerbaijan,
and Northern—the independent Republic of Azerbaijan. The existence of two
Azerbaijans shapes history and geopolitics between and around Iran and the
independent Republic of Azerbaijan.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no
conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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